论文总字数：41933字
摘 要
雅思考试是国际通用的英语测试，为考生提供英语能力评估服务。如今在中国，雅思考试已有越来越多的考生。 本文运用问卷调查中国雅思考生英语听力技能的情况。该问卷要求受试者对李克特量表中19项英语听力能力进行自我评分，旨在研究雅思考试听力技能的内部结构。本研究发现了两个潜在的结构维度：听力基础与逻辑推理能力。另外，本文调查专业（英语与非英语），雅思听力培训班，准备时长以及出国经历中国考生雅思听力技能的影响。本文应用多元方差分析对上述因素对听力技能进行了分析，结果显示，专业（英语与非英语）对听力技能有影响，出国经历对听力技能无显著影响。准备时长对听力技能的整体情况与听力基础有影响，对逻辑推理能力无影响。雅思培训课对听力技能有负面影响。雅思听力培训课与长时间的准备不是听力技能分数高的前提条件。对于英语基础好的同学来说，花长时间准备听力考试是不必要的。对于英语基础相对薄弱的同学来说，长时间的准备能够在一定程度上提高听力技能，但长时间的准备，出国以及培训课程不能保证听力技能有显著提高。
关键词：雅思听力，结构，决定因素
Table of Contents
Chapter One Introduction 7
1.1 Research Background 7
1.2 Significance of the Study 7
1.3 Overview of the Study 9
Chapter Two Literature Review 9
2.1 Hypothesizing Dimensions of Listening Skills 9
2.2 Potential Determinants of IETLS Listening Skills 12
Chapter Three Methods 12
3.1 Instrument 12
3.2 Procedure 13
3.3 Participants 13
3.4 Data Analysis 14
Chapter Four Results 15
4.1 The Underlying Dimensions of IETLS Listening Skills 15
4.2 Determinants of IETLS Listening Skills 16
4.2.1 How does Major Influence IETLS Skills 16
4.2.2 How does Preparation Time Influence IETLS Skills 17
4.2.3 How does Training Courses Influence IETLS Skills 19
4.2.4 How does Experiences of Being Abroad Influence IETLS Skills 20
Chapter Five Discussions 21
5.1 The Dimensions of IETLS Listening Test 21
5.2 Determinants of IETLS Listening Test 21
Chapter Six Conclusion 24
6.1 Summary 24
6.2 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Studies 24
References 25
Appendix 27
List of Tables
Table1: Factor Loadings of IETLS Listening Skills 16
Table 2: Means and Standard Deviation on the Dependent Variables for English and Non-English Majors 17
Table 3: Means and Standard Deviation on the Dependent Variables for Preparation Time 18
Table 4: Means and Standard Deviations on the Dependent Variables for Training Experiences 20
Table 5: Means and Standard Deviation on the Dependent Variables for being Abroad 20
Chapter One Introduction
1.1 Research Background
In China, the demand on the IETLS test is dramatically rising, as a large number of students go to commonwealth countries for undergraduate or graduate studies. The IELTS test includes four modules, reading, listening, writing and speaking. Among all the modules, the listening module is the most difficult to study and evaluate as many elusive and transient cognitive processes and cerebral activities are involved while candidates are sitting for the test. This study focuses on listening only.
In this study, I used a survey design to tease out what skills (e.g. linguistic skills, logical reasoning skills), are most needed for success in IETLS test. Furthermore, as educational, time and material resources are typically poured towards IETLS preparation, I intend to find out what factors (e.g., candidates’ major, preparation time, training resources, experiences of going abroad) account most for better IETLS listening skills. The results of this study would serve as guidance for all potential IETLS test-takers, in terms of what skills to focus on, and how to utilize resources and strategies to obtain those skills.
1.2 Significance of the Study
The significance of the study is three-fold. First, though scholars around the world have made efforts to study various aspects of the IELTS listening test, few studies mentioned Chinese college students as a group, despite the dramatic growth of this group as clientele of IETLS. Because of the inherent difference between Chinese and English, Chinese students are more likely to encounter difficulties in distinguishing phonemes, listening for the general message and understanding intonation patterns (Richards 1983). Combined with the fact that English teaching model in China largely emphasizes grammar and reading skills, listening skills have always been the weak point for most Chinese students. Nevertheless, for those who apply for universities abroad, a certain level of English listening proficiency is required, not only for higher IETLS scores, but also for survival and adaption in English-speaking countries. Therefore, a study on IETLS listening skills seems timely and serves the interests of a growing population of test-takers.
Second, even in western countries where IETLS test is most researched, a simplistic understanding of its listening proportion prevails. The test score is usually used to indicate a test-takers’ listening skills, whereas the literature indicates that listening is a complex process involving various stages and cognitive abilities, some of which might not traditionally be perceived as associated with listening (e.g., non-verbal reasoning). In this study, I use participants’ self-assessment data to partition listening skills further into listening proficiency and logical reasoning so as to present a more nuanced and layered view of listening ability. Potential test-takers will have more specific and accurate directions as to how to improve their listening skills.
Third, existing research typically reports that test-takers mobilize multiple resources in preparing for the IETLS test, including educational and time resources (e.g. candidates’ major, training courses, time spent in preparation and going abroad). This research further looks into what kind of resources will have a significant impact on students’ self-perceived listening skills. In other words, this study intends to tease out the combination of the resources that account most for students’ listening skills. With such kind of information, potential test-takers will be more efficient and discerning in deciding what resources to mobilize, for instance, how to better make use of their time.
In light of the goals I intend to achieve and the lacunae I intend to patch up in the existing literature, the concrete research questions are as follows,
a) What are participants’ self-perceived, more specific and layered skills that contribute to better performance in IETLS listening test? In other words, how could IETLS listening skills be broken down?
b) What educational and time resources would account for IETLS skills? In other words, among major, spending time preparing, attending training courses and going abroad, what could potential test-takers do right to improve IETLS listening skills?
1.3 Overview of the Study
This study is organized in the format of an empirical study. Chapter one is an introductory chapter, and the remainder of this study is organized as follows. Chapter two, the literature review, constitutes the two bodies of literature that shed light on the collection, analysis, as well as interpretation of the empirical data. The first body of literature pertains to speculated skills related to listening performance, such as language-specific skill, cultural background skill, knowledge specific to a test and a test-taker’s anxiety level. The second body of literature concerns the resource variables that traditionally perceived to determine listening performance.
Chapter 3,4,5 are respectively the methodology, results and discussion sections. The last chapter, chapter 6 is the concluding part of the thesis, where implications (how to apply the findings of the research) and limitations of the study would be presented.
Chapter Two Literature Review
2.1 Hypothesizing Dimensions of Listening Skills
Two bodies of literature constitute the basis of researching the two major research questions. The first question looks into the sub-components of listening skills. On the basis of comprehensive scanning of literature, I hypothesize that four dimensions underline general listening skills, including skills needed to perform IETLS listening section: a) language-specific skill, b) cultural background skill, c) skills pertains to a specific test, d) anxiety level of test takers.
Language-specific knowledge refers to the cognitive and technical grasping of English that is needed to complete a listening process, which according to Anderson (2000) and Nagle and Sanders (1986) is “the process of storing the input as a sound string (Anderson 2000:388), then parsing the sound into the combined meaning of words and finally making use of the mental representation of the message (Nagle and Sanders 1986:12”. In order to complete this multi-stage, complex cognitive process, I hypothesized that one must need necessary, comprehensive knowledge in vocabulary and spelling, sound-word recognition, meaning recognition (of words, phrases, sentences, idioms), and discerning accents.
Such skills is also what Liu Dong (2011) terms as “linguistic elements” which he deems essential to complete listening tasks, namely, the ability to identify a speech sound and command of vocabulary and grammar. Such knowledge could be measured quantity-wise as well as by the time lapse between input and output. That is, it could be assumed that “more knowledge” (e.g., knowing more words) and less reaction time (e.g., make quicker decision on answers) would indicate test-takers’ superior listening skills.
The second hypothesized dimension, is background or content knowledge that avails test takers’ choice of answers. The term “background” or “content” knowledge seems overtly broad-ranging and encompassing, yet given the fact that IETLS test items are largely written under the influence of content-bared instruct (CBI) theory, a command of a wide range of contents would certainly help a student with test results. For instance, Chiang and Dunkel (1992) confirm that students’ familiarity with a certain topic will help them retain information from a passage heard on the spot. That is, they remember better or are able to fill in the information gap with prior knowledge. The case is more so for non-native speakers than native speakers.
Among all the “background” or “content” knowledge, cultural background looms large, given IETLS’s preference to test cultural, historical, social and economic knowledge in English-speaking countries. For instance, some prior knowledge in holidays in western countries will certainly help a test-taker with such test items.
The second dimension is distinguished from the first dimension, given that “content” or “background” knowledge is not always coded in English, and could be transferred from a test-takers’ L1. For instance, reading about English-speaking countries in Chinese might as well improve knowledge in this respect.
The third hypothesized dimension, specific knowledge of IETLS test, refers to a students’ familiarity with a particular test and ability to formulate related coping strategies. Sarnaki (1979) alternatively terms such skills “test-wiseness” or “test-management skills”. For instance, knowing the format of questions (e.g. multiple choices) or strategically allocating time will certainly improve one’s score. Cohen (2007) and Dolly Williams (1986) confirm that prior knowledge in test formats is positively correlated to test outcomes. Such knowledge is most likely independent of the first dimension, as could be attested to such facts that a Chinese L2 learner might perform much better in IETLS by doing “drills” than a native English speaker taking IETLS the first time around. For the same reason, The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (AERA, APAamp;NCME, 2014) states that“test takers have the right to adequate information to help them properly prepare for a test” (2014:133).
The fourth hypothesized dimension, known as test anxiety, is a test-situation-specific anxiety in which test takers cannot perform as well as they should be able to due to negative thinking, worry, or loss of emotional control in response to test conditions and constraints (Horwits, 2010). Many studies proved that test-anxiety has a negative impact on the candidates’ overall performance. Golchi (2012) investigated listening anxiety and relationship with listening strategy use and listening comprehension among IELTS learners. Results showed listening anxiety had negative correlation with listening comprehension and listening strategy use. Moreover, the findings suggested that low anxious learners used metacognitive strategies more than did high anxious learners.
In light of these four hypothesized dimensions, a series of survey questions are written to measure participants’ self-assessment of each dimension of IETLS listening skills.
2.2 Potential Determinants of IETLS Listening Skills
The second body of literature concerns the factors that contribute to improvement of IETLS listening skills. Test-takers in China typically report pouring various resources towards IETLS preparation. However, are such resources as essential as test-takers perceive, or are there resources over-rated? The second research question of this thesis is designed to evaluate the impacts of major, preparation time, test-training, and experiences abroad on listening skills, namely, those resources that are deemed essential to incremental skills in IETLS.
First, being an English major is perceived as the undisputable advantage, a valuable resource that could only be envied by non-English majors, given the persistent and prolonged English training unobtainable outside English programs. Second, time is as well considered valuable a resource. That the longer a test-taker stays on the specific task of preparing for the test, the greater his or her skills. Third, it is a widely held belief among test takers that training courses on IETLS will give them unspeakable advantages in IETLS. Many high-priced private training facilities count on people believing in the importance of training courses. Fourth, the experiences of visiting a foreign country, that is, more chances of using English language in real-life situations for an enduring period of time, are deemed another resource input that favorably impacts on IETLS listening skills.
In the second research question, each of the above assumptions will be tested against gleaned data on IETLS listening skills.
Chapter Three Methods
3.1 Instrument
The instrument was written based on thorough literature review. Apart from items gleaning participants’ basic demographic information, such as sex, and where they are from, four items were included to discern participants categorically, asking them whether they are English majors, whether they had taken any training courses or visited any foreign countries, and how long they had spent on preparing for the IETLS listening test.
Apart from those categorized items, 19 Likert-scale items (ranging from 1-4 with 1 indicating “always” and 4 indicating “almost never”) were written to capture participants’ comprehensive listening skills which include all the four hypothesized dimensions explicated in the Literature Review section. Eleven items pertain to measuring language-specific knowledge (e.g., were you ever marked down due to misspelling). Three items concern content and background knowledge of English speaking countries (e.g., inadequate cultural background knowledge). Three are associated with test-specific knowledge (e.g., understand the meaning, but fail to make the right choice), and two measure participants’ anxiety level (e.g., high anxiety level). Refer to Appendix for the survey.
3.2 Procedure
I sent the link of the questionnaire into various QQ and wechat IELTS study groups and group members were encouraged to fill out this questionnaire honestly and conscientiously. Questionnaire link was sent into some student groups, the members of which are prospective students of Universities in UK, Canada and Australia, who are required to submit their IETLS score before enrollment. Our survey started on April 8 and ended on April 19. Among all the 182 questionnaires handed out, 135 were valid.
3.3 Participants
All 135 participants were undergraduates and postgraduates who had previously taken the IETLS exam, among whom 27 were males (20%) and 108 were females (80%).Their age were between 18-25 years old. All participants were dispersed in different parts of China including Nanjing, Beijing and Shanghai. Among all 135 participants, 68 had taken IETLS listening training courses (50.4%) and 67 had not (49.6%). With regard to their experiences of being abroad, 65 reported they had been abroad before (48.2%) and 70 reported they had not (51.9%). Finally, as to their preparation time, 55 (40.7%) spent less than three months, 61 (45.2%) spent between three months and a year while 19 (14.1%) spent more than a year.
3.4 Data Analysis
Five reverse worded questions were identified (Question 1, 8, 16, 17 and 18) and their scores reversed (for instance, “1” is reassigned a value of “4”), so that higher scores represent better proficiency for IETLS listening skills. Take Question 17 (Infer the answer though it is not given in the audio material) for example, in which“1” represents “Always” and “4” represents “Hardly”. The score for this question is reversed so that “4”, the highest value, indicate a higher proficiency.
To research the first question, the underlying structure of IETLS, a maximum likelihood factor analysis was conducted on the 19 items measuring IETLS listening skills. Then an oblique rotation was performed on factors yielded from the previous step. All together, two factors were yielded from analysis of the first question, listening proficiency and logical reasoning, indicating that IETLS skills are a two-dimension, rather than a four-dimension structure.
To research the second question, the total scores of items related to listening proficiency and logical reasoning were respectively calculated, resulting in two new variables (named listening proficiency and logical reasoning respectively). Four successive one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were conducted. During each MANOVA, I use listening proficiency and logical reasoning as dependent variables, and use, respectively during each of the four times major, preparation time, training course experiences and experiences of being abroad, as independent variable.
Following up each of the MANOVA, analysis of variances (ANOVA) on each of the dependent variable (listening proficiency and logical reasoning) were conducted. Using the Bonferroni method, each ANOVA was tested at 0.25 level.
As in the second MANOVA, the independent variable, time, has three categories, a post hoc analysis to the univariate ANOVA for listening proficiency were conducted (consisting of pairwise comparisons) to find out which time category affected listening proficiency most strongly. Each pairwise comparison was tested at 0.25 divided by 3 or .008 level.
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