论文总字数：35196字

摘 要

校训代表着校园文化和教育理念，其形成受到传统文化的影响。所以，中美文化差异的客观存在必然会在大学校训中有所体现。本文将通过比较研究校训历史的发展、文字的构成与来源和文化内涵与稳定性，分析其中中美文化差异的具体原因：伦理和认知倾向、集体和个人主义、曲线性和直线性思维、后馈性和超前性倾。本文旨在更好地发挥校训的教育作用，以及促进中美文化的交流。

关键词：大学校训；文化背景；中美文化差异

Contents

1. Introduction 1

1.1 The Definition of University Motto 1

1.2 The Objectives of This Study 2

2. Literature Review 2

3. Comparisons of Sino-American University Mottos 4

3.1 Differences in the Historical Developments 4

3.2 Differences in the Composition and Sources of Words 5

4. Factors Leading to Sino-American Cultural Differences in University Mottos 6

4.1 Morality Tendency vs Knowledge Tendency 7

4.2 Collectivism vs Individualism 8

4.3 Indirect Thinking Mode vs Direct Thinking Mode 10

4.4 Past-orientation vs Future-orientation 11

5. Conclusion 13

Works Cited 14

1. Introduction

1.1 The Definition of the University Motto

The word “university” has its broad sense and its narrow sense. Generalized university including private university, college, higher vocational technology school, higher adult school and so on, refers to all kinds of properties, levels, types of colleges and universities, and it is the floorboard of the institutions of higher learning. University of narrow sense refers to the full-time ordinary college which can impart bachelor degree and others higher than bachelor and which consists of different subjects and professional classes. “University” in this thesis refers to the narrow sense. (Shi Tingting, 2009:1)

As for the university motto, Modern Chinese Dictionary defines it as “the words that school provides have a guiding significance for the students”, and Ci Hai pressed by Zhong Hua Book Company in 1999 defines it as “in order to educate the students conveniently, school leaders pick up some boards with some guided and meaningful words on it and hang them in the public places in the school.” Correspondingly, there are some demands for making university mottos: first, university motto should reflect some significant thoughts of university operations; second, the words should be easy to understand and remember; last, university mottos should represent some characteristics of universities.

Many Chinese scholars also have interpreted the university motto. In Strengthen the Study of University Culture, Promote the Construction of University Culture, Yuan Guiren, Minister of Education, proposes that the university motto is just a rational recognition of its traditional culture and cultural spirit. Professor Gu Mingyuan of Peking University believes that as an important content of construction of university culture, the university motto is distilled from school spirit and learning spirit and condenses the purpose of running a university. He also believes that the university motto reflects the will and the pursuit of the faculty and students in the university, and guides not only the orientation for setting up the university but also the behaviors of students and teachers.

1.2 The Objectives of This Study

There are two main objectives of this thesis. One and foremost, when Chinese university mottos inherit and carry forward Chinese traditional ethics, the university leaders need to upgrade the new connotations and spirits of the new era into the university motto. Meanwhile, universities can adopt the American traditional ethics - the pursuit of knowledge - in order to form a harmonious atmosphere of academic freedom as well as to provide a brand new academic environment, which can get the university motto possessed university spirit, reflected university culture and value orientation. At last, university leaders should make the university motto become the soul of university culture and lead universities to complete the scared mission entrusted by the society.

Second, every culture is unique. So it is undoubted that cultural differences may occur when people with different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other. Due to cultural differences, communicative barriers or errors frequently occur in cross-cultural communications. Cultural differences between China and the US can not be changed but can be understood by each other. The US not only inherits the European culture but also has its own unique cultural features as an emerging country. In consequence, studying Sino-American cultural differences can benefit the cultural exchanges not only between China and the US but also between China and the rest of the world especially the western developed countries (Rao Jihong, 2005:166).

2. Literature Review

Nowadays, in modern universities, university motto increasingly becomes an indispensable part of university culture. More and more universities attach great importance to summarizing a special and vivid precept. According to the data from Journal Net, outstanding master’s thesis network and other many materials such as the journal of higher education research, it turns out many efforts and achievements have been made. However, there are few systemic researches about the cultural differences reflected in university mottos.

In World’s Famous University Motto Calibrations in 2003, Professor Wu Chongshu selected 36 domestic and 51 foreign prestigious universities, and explained the development, educational goals and educational concepts of the respective universities by introducing their university mottos one by one. (Wu Chongshu: 2003:28) However, Professor Wu did not list any university mottos of the 51 universities mentioned in the article. Nor did he emphasize on the background, significance and influences of those university mottos.

In The Differences of the Mottos of the West and China in 2006, Wang Caixia analyzes Chinese and American different university ideas and university spirits by comparing the similarities and differences of thought sources and forms of university mottos. (Wang Caixia, 2006:83) In Cultural Differences Reflected in Chinese and American University Mottos, Lu Chunxia found out that Chinese university mottos lay great emphasis on morality, determination, thinking and the past while American ones on knowledge, personality, action and the future. And she came to a conclusion that it is hard to judge which one is better than the other. (Lu Chunxia, 2006:103) In A Simple Analysis on Differences between Chinese and Western University Mottos in 2007, Gong Xiaobin analyzed the Confucian thought, Christian culture, collectivism and individualism embodied in Chinese and Western university mottos. (Gong Xiaobin and Lan Xia, 2007:24) In A Comparative Study of Chinese Western University Mottos in 2007, Wang Chunxi attempted to analyze the differences between some representative Chinese and western university mottos by comparing the sources, contents, forms and functions of these universities mottos. (Wang Chunxi and Chen Sihui, 2007:32)

Among the studies in this field, most scholars have either analyzed the origins of university mottos, or summed up some similarities and differences of university mottos. Some scholars just listed the university mottos simplily, or just analyzed from some certain perspectives. They did not link the different parts they studied together, and also they did not get some relationships between the different parts they researched. And their conclusions follow the uniform pattern, lacking in novelty and characteristics. Even if they have done this to some degree, the previous scholars have not analyzed university mottos from the comparative perspectives. So, what will be discussed in this thesis are not only the comparisons of Sino-American university mottos from the comparative perspectives, but also the link of some parts previous scholars have studied, as well as the factors leading to Sino-American cultural differences in university mottos.

3. Comparisons of Sino-American University Mottos

University motto is the materialized form of university spirit, so there should exist some similarities between Chinese and American university mottos. What is obvious is that they are the same in the pursuit of knowledge and truth. Peking University’s Motto “爱国进步民主科学” (patriotism, progress, democracy and science) is a case in point. Knowledge and truth are also the key words in American university mottos just like those in Chinese. In addition, the religious beliefs of America embodied in university motto all the time. Harvard University’s motto “VERITAS” (Let Plato be your friend, and Aristotle, but more let your friend truth) is another typical example.

In spite of these similarities in university mottos between China and America, there are still some apparent differences in Chinese and American university mottos.

3.1 Differences in the Historical Developments

University motto is the accumulation and conciseness of the university culture, and is gradually formed of long-term practice of university running and teaching activities. But university motto is also influenced by the times background such as social politics, economic system, cultural trends and so on. Therefore, university motto may reflect some certain historical backgrounds and times characteristics and policy with the social changes.

Imperial University of Peking, the predecessor of Peking University, was the product of political influences when Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and other reformers started the Reform Movement after the defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1985. During that period, western culture spread throughout China. The policy of Imperial University of Peking - “Chinese culture as body, western culture for use” - showed that the social politics is embodied by the university running idea. Imperial University of Peking turned into Peking University after the Revolution of 1911. In the New Culture Movement 1915, Peking University held up the banner of democracy and science to attack the decadent feudal ideology and the backward feudal system. At that time, the motto of Peking University has turned into “爱国进步民主科学” (patriotism, progress, democracy and science). Tsinghua University, founded in 1911, also has experienced the same movement at that time. The motto of Tsinghua University - “自强不息，厚德载物” (self-improvement, self-respect, self-examination and self-reliance) - was closely connected to the social phenomenon at that time. All in all, the mottos of Peking University and Tsinghua University reflect the strong national sense of responsibility and the unremitting pursuit of democratic political system and scientific truth.

When the American War of Independence broke out in 1775, Harvard University, founded in 1636, supported the independence of America and advocated the spirit of democracy, equality, freedom and justice. Harvard University’s motto “VERITAS” (Let Plato be your friend, and Aristotle, but more let your friend truth) was the insurgency of conservative social system before the War of Independence and the reflection of democracy and equality. Another case in point is the Yale University founded in 1701. Yale University’s motto is “Light and Truth” (Lux et Veritas), which embodied the dissatisfaction of university spirit with reality and the expectation for the happy future (Liu Xin, 2010:4).

3.2 Differences in the Composition and Sources of Words

As to the word composition of Chinese university mottos, the most common one is the four phrases that consists of eight words, next is two phrases that consists of eight words, and the last is four phrases that consists of sixteen words. These three kinds of word compositions represent the main pattern of the current university mottos in China. (Lin Weilian et al, 2005:133) The vast majority of Chinese university mottos are derived from Confucianism or the thoughts of ancient books; therefore they are symmetric and concise in sentence structure and are easy to read. Here are some common words or phrases often used in Chinese university mottos: innovation, virtue, reality, solidarity, knowledge, honesty, diligence and so on. (Table 1)

Table 1 Key Phrases/Words in Chinese University Mottos (Lin Weilian et al, 2005:133)

American university mottos, however, focus on the pursuit of knowledge, truth and freedom. (Table 2) What’s more, the frequent appearances of such words as God, Christ and spirit, etc. in American university mottos also reflect the religious thoughts of the American university mottos. (Lin Weilian et al, 2005:133)

Table 2 Key Words in American University Mottos (Lin Weilian et al, 2005:133)

As to the sources of university mottos, there exist three main sources of Chinese university mottos. First of all, many Chinese university mottos are derived from the classic culture, mainly from the famous aphorism in ancient books. Secondly, quite a number of Chinese university mottos proceeded from the inscriptions given by national leaders, well-regarded experts or schoolmasters, etc. Thirdly, some Chinese university mottos sprang from the suggestions determined by the public after soliciting. (Ning Xianfu, 2008:21)

Accordingly, there are two main sources of American university mottos. First, a considerable number of American university mottos came from poems or epigrams, especially from the Bible. (Zhang Jingbi, 2009:98) For example, Columbia University’s Motto “In thy light we shall see light” is from Psalms in the Old Testament -- “Quoniam apud te fons vitae in Lumine tuo videbimus lumen”. Second, numerous American university mottos came from the inscriptions written by celebrities. Stanford University’s Motto “the Wind of Freedom Blows” (Die luft Freiheit wehty) is written by the first minister of Stanford University. (Wang Chunxi and Chen Sihui, 2007:32)

4. Factors Leading to Sino-American Cultural Differences in University Mottos

The university mottos in different countries will reflect their own peculiar characteristics as they are cultivated in different national cultures. Therefore, analyzing the cultural differences between China and America will contribute to better understanding the differences of Chinese and American universities mottos.

4.1 Morality Tendency vs Knowledge Tendency

The traditional Chinese culture is deeply influenced by Confucian ethics centered on morality. According to Confucian ethics, everyone should abide by the moral codes, which is the important basis or guarantee for the harmonious interpersonal relationships. The morality reflected in Chinese university mottos is determined by such moral culture. Different from the traditional Chinese culture, American culture was greatly affected by Christian thoughts with truth and knowledge being the prevailing thought. It is the constant pursuits of natural rules that contribute to the emphasis on science and knowledge in American culture. Therefore, the core content of American university mottos is absolutely about knowledge and truth.

Chinese universities are creative to use classic culture, traditional aphorism and the history as university mottos. As to this point, hundreds-year-old universities can be the most typical examples. In the late 19^th century, some modern universities adopting the western modern university systems were established. It is interesting to find that most of them chose to use ancient books and records. Among the 100 universities in China, there are 24 which have “morality” in their university mottos. Thus, “morality” has become the core connotation of Chinese university mottos (Guo Bin, 2011:41). Also, the “knowledge” students gained from the university, is not just the knowledge about knowing the world, but the moral creed about how to live and conquer the country (Yang Tianping and Xu Jihong, 2008:90). Accordingly, the contents of many universities were influenced deeply by the Confucian culture which emphasizes on morality. For example, the university motto of Tsinghua University - “自强不息，厚德载物” (Self-discipline and Social Commitment) - is from Zhou Yi. The motto of the Sun Yat-sen University - “博学、审问、慎思、明辨、笃行” (study extensively, enquire accurately, reflect carefully, discrimination clearly, practice earnestly) - is from Zhong Yong. The motto of Fudan - “博学而笃志，切问而近思” (rich in knowledge and tenacious of purpose; inquiring with earnestness and reflecting with self-practice) - is from Lun Yu (Jiang Shusheng, 2002:6).

Compared with Chinese university mottos, the American universities lay great emphasis on truth and knowledge. “Morality” can hardly been found in the American university mottos. Among the 100 universities in the USA, 12 universities have “truth’ in their mottos and 15 universities emphasize on knowledge. For instance, the motto of the Harvard University is “VERITAS” (Let Plato be your friend, and Aristotle, but more let your friend truth); the motto of the Yale University is “Lux et Veritas” (Truth and Light); the motto of the Chicago University is “Let knowledge increase so that life may be enriched” and so on. From these American university mottos, the word “morality” can not be found, but the words “truth” and “knowledge” appeared many times, instead.

The marine culture especially navigation in the western culture increased people’s desire of knowing the nature and conquering the nature. Thus, the western cultural tradition emphasizes on seeking knowledge or cognizing knowledge gradually. The ancient philosophers put forward that knowledge is the human instinct. Later, in modern times, rationalism has become the spirit of the times, and one of the main features of philosophy spirit is “the spirit to explore the nature” (Zhao Dunhua, 2001:169). So, the Americans inherited this tradition, and put it into the university mottos making. Professor Shu Neng has pointed out that what Chinese traditional philosophy radically provides to the essence of human are ethics, while the western philosophy provides cognition. (Gu Jiazu and Lu Sheng, 2002:45) This is also somewhat reflected in the university mottos.

4.2 Collectivism vs Individualism

Collectivism holds that the group (the nation, the community, the proletariat, the race and so on) is the primary unit of reality and the ultimate standard of value. People tend to view themselves as members of groups (facilities, work units, tribes, nations), and usually consider the needs of the group to be more important than the needs of individuals. Individualism holds that the individual is the primary unit of the reality and the ultimate standard of value. People tend to view themselves as individuals and emphasize the needs of individuals.

As we all know, collectivism is the core characteristic of Chinese culture, and so is individualism to the American culture. In China, the individual value is manifested through the contributions to the society. Individuals should be responsible for not only themselves, but also for others and the whole society. The Chinese culture emphasizes on collectivism and holds the view that collective interests are above individual interests. American culture is based on marine culture of ancient Greek tradition, and emphasizes on individualism and freedom. The American society, therefore, is predominated by individualism. Intercultural communication scholar Larry A. Samovar once said: “In the western culture, the individual is supreme and individualism is the primary and positive value. The value is likely to dominate everything in the US”. (Samovar and Porter, 1995:79,180,185) Definitely, this is also reflected in university mottos.

In China, universities expect the students to love the country, to obtain the honor for the universities, to make contributions for the country. The most typical example is the Peking University. In 1917, Mr. Cai Yuanpei, principal of the university, put forward “Patriotism, Advancement, Democracy, and Science” as the motto. It’s worth noting that “patriotism” was put in the first place. The hundred year’s history of Peking University is a history of patriotism, and a history about the struggle for revitalizing the country and prospering the nation.

From the external expression form of the mottos, most Chinese university mottos are settled phrases or words. Almost all the Chinese universities prefer to use the trim words as mottos. The motto of Jinan University is “Loyalty, Credibility, Sincerity, and Piety”. The form of mottos is similar, and there are few universities have characteristic mottos, which embodies the deep-rooted collectivism in Chinese culture.

Different from Chinese university mottos, only few American university mottos mention something about country or social service. The only two universities that mention country or service in their mottos are: The United States Military Academy at West Point and Princeton University. West Point’s motto is “Duty, Honor, and Country”; and Princeton University’s motto is “In the nations service and in the service of all nations” (Wu Chongshu, 2003:307, 253). In contrast, other American universities emphasize more on the individual pursuit for the truth and knowledge. The former principal of Harvard University, Eliot, presented that the university is the place for academic research, an environment for teachers and students to explore and find and spread the truth; and teachers and students in class should have more freedom to discuss the knowledge, or it will endanger the knowledge development.

Furthermore, the form of American university mottos is various. There are noun phrases, e.g. the motto of Yale University “Lux et Veritas” (light and truth); preposition phrases, e.g. the motto of Princeton University “In the nations service and in the service of all nations”; imperative sentences, e.g. the motto of the Harvard University “VERITAS” (Let Plato be your friend, and Aristotle, but more let your friend truth); and even a whole sentence, e.g. the motto of Pennsylvania University “laws without morals are useless” and so on. These changeable university mottos can also display the individualism in American culture.

4.3 Indirect Thinking Mode vs Direct Thinking Mode

In 1996, Robert Kapalan selected Chinese into a contrastive study of the semantic patterns, and summarized the paragraph development patterns in different cultural backgrounds. He put forward that Chinese was selected into spiral thought patterns of eastern language, and English was selected into straight line thought patterns (Kaplan, 2001:16).

Peking University’s motto is “爱国进步民主科学” (Patriotism, Advancement, Democracy, and Science); Beijing Normal University’s motto is “学为人师、行为世范” (learn to be an excellent teacher, act as an exemplary person); and Tsinghua University’s motto is “自强不息，厚德载物” (Self-discipline and Social Commitment). These universities put forward different requirements for students, such as erudition, morality, honesty, and self-improvement. Furthermore, they have the similar aims - to enable students to shoulder responsibility for the country, assume the obligation to society, as well as make contributions to the country and the people. These indirect expressions reflect the features of Chinese curve thinking model or indirect thinking model. For instance, in China, if someone says to you like this “I’m as busy as a bee recently. I don’t know what to do. There are some essays not being translated, but there is not much time left.” He doesn’t want you to response like “Do you need my help?” All he wants is your compliment or admiration. He’ll be much more delighted if you say that he is very competent.

Compared with the implicit Chinese university mottos, American mottos are quite direct and clear. Americans have a persistent pursuit of truth. The motto of Yale University is “Lux et Veritas” (Light and truth); the motto of Chicago University is “Let knowledge grow from more to more, and so be human life enriched”; and the motto of Harvard University is “VERTIAS” (Let Plato be your friend, and Aristotle, but more let your friend truth). These university mottos laid a brief and clear emphasis on the importance of truth and knowledge. The motto of Princeton University is “In the nations service and in the service of all nations”. Although it doesn’t lay great emphasis on truth and knowledge, it still makes a direct and clear request to students: serve the country, serve the society. West Point is the most representative in the USA, and its motto is “Duty, Honor, and Country”. There is one demand for the students in this motto: be responsible to the country. The above instances are the typical straight line thinking model or direct thinking model in American university mottos.

4.4 Past-orientation vs Future-orientation

People in different cultures have different views on time. As to the concept of time, China is the society which gives priority to past-orientation. People respect the past. People take the past as standard on whatever they did or will do. Chinese people pay much attention to solving problems in the view of the past. On the contrary, future-orientation is an important concept of time. Americans do not focus on the distant or ideal future. They believe that everything will develop in a good direction, and the past is not important.

In University Motto Research, Professor Chen Guisheng studied the Chinese university mottos’ sentence patterns, and he found that the most popular form of the university mottos appeared about 68 times. The form is four phrases composed of eight words, characterized by reading fluently and sounding beautifully. So, the characteristics of Chinese university mottos are that they can be read fluently and they sounds pleasant (Liu Baocun, 2003:68). Of course, it has something to do with the source of university mottos. Most Chinese university mottos are based on the scriptures, inheriting the tradition (Zhou Guping and Tao Bingzeng, 2005:96-97). The motto of Tsinghua University - “自强不息，厚德载物” (Self-discipline, and Social Commitment) - is from Zhou Yi; the motto of Fudan University is from Lun Yu; the motto of Nankai University is from Yi Jing and so on. Specifically, the motto of Tsinghua University - “自强不息，厚德载物” (Self-discipline and Social Commitment) - which comes from Zhou Yi is the concentrated reflection of the Confucian ethic morals, and the concentrated reflection of believing in books and sages. “Self-discipline” is originated from “Heaven revolves, the gentlemen to unremitting self-improvement” in Qian Gua (Zhou Yi). “Social commitment” is originated from “Terrain kun, the gentlemen to social commitment” in Kun Gua (Zhou Yi). These two sentences show profound cultural deposits in forms and contents. The previous motto of Peking University is “Erudition, interrogation, deliberation, prudence” stemmed from Zhong Yong, and the present motto “Freedom and equality, democracy and science” aims to highlight the glorious tradition of Peking University, especially the historic impact on the May 4^th Movement. Usually, Chinese culture bears the characteristic of “backward looking”. The sages like copiously quoting authoritative works when they wrote a book. They often used the sages’ words or previous words as the premise of inference and the argument of demonstration. The Chinese also pay much attention to reviewing their history; advocate the ancestors and emphasize on historical inheritance. Both the forms and the details of Chinese university mottos show such characteristics in Chinese culture.

However, there are few such embodiments in American university mottos. There are some American universities quoting classic aphorism mottos. For example, Harvard University’s motto is “VERTIAS” (Let Plato be your friend, and Aristotle, but more let your friend truth), but the language used is modern English. Some famous American university mottos, both in detail and in form, reflect the characteristic of foresight. For instance, Chicago University’s motto is “Let knowledge increase so that life may be enriched”; Stanford University’s motto is “the wind of freedom blows” and so forth. These mottos obviously reflect the characteristic of foresight in American culture.

Due to historical factors, being adventurous has become the remarkable feature of American culture. Americans advocate democracy, freedom, science, and rationalism, and they don’t always stick to the tradition. They prefer to pursue something new and variable, and they always welcome various forecasting assumptions. In other words, Americans tend to look into the future. In the best-seller Who Moved My Cheese, “The quicker you let go of old cheese, the sooner you find new cheese” mainly conveys the perception of the past in American culture (Johnson, 2001:55). The foresight characteristic of looking forward can be absolutely seen in American university mottos.

5. Conclusion

A university motto is the manifestation of the university’s education and advocacy, and the concise and symbolic expression of a university. The university motto is the soul of university cultures. The cultural differences reflected in Chinese and American university mottos are rather complexed and this thesis is only an attempt to explore these differences.

This thesis compares Chinese and American university mottos mainly from the perspective of historical developments, word composition, and sources of words, cultural connotations and stability. Each university motto is produced in a specific historical background, and it is closely related to each university’s tradition of running a university, the idea of running a university, the goal of running a university, and the characteristics of running a university.

University motto is an indivisible part of every university and college, and it reflects different university spirits and university missions. The thesis also makes a further research on the factors leading to Sino-American cultural differences in university mottos. Here are some possible factors leading to the differences: morality and knowledge tendency, collectivism and individualism, indirect and direct thinking mode, past-orientation and future-orientation.

By analyzing the cultural differences of Chinese and American university mottos, this thesis is not aimed to judge what kind of university motto is better. On the contrary, it is hoped to find a better way for university motto to properly function in education, and also provide a new perspective to understand the cultures of the two countries profoundly, and thus to promote the cultural interactions.

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