论文总字数：33694字

摘 要

在我国，从十九世纪初到目前为止接触和使用英语的历史已有近两百年。由于西方和中方两种文化的相互渗透和影响，大量的汉语词句进入英语中，成为标准英语的一部分，即“中国英语”（China English）。英语作为一门世界通用语，一旦与各国文化结合必将发生“本土化”并形成各种变体。事实上，一些英语变体已经被广泛认可并在国际交流中发挥着重要作用。同样，中国英语是英语与中国文化融合所产生的变体。中国英语不可避免的受到中国文化的影响，形成了自身的特点，其最为突显的特点表现在词汇层面。基于前人对中国英语及中国英语词汇的研究，通过仔细观察，资料收集和资料分析，本课题以近年英文版《政府工作报告》为文本，对中国英语词汇的特征进行了分析。通过案例分析证明中国英语存在的普遍性，阐述了中国英语词汇特征。

关键词：中国英语；中式英语；《政府工作报告》 ；词汇特征

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 1

2.1 Research Background: China English as a Variety of English 1

2.2 Definitions and Characteristics of China English in Contrast with Chinese English 2

2.3 Research Methodology 6

3. An Overview on Report on the Work of the Government 7

3.1 A Description of Report on the Work of the Government 7

3.2 Major Linguistic Characteristics of Report on the Work of the Government 8

3.3 The Relevance of Report on the Work of the Government to the Study of China English 9

4. An Analysis of the Lexical Characteristics of China English in the English Version of Reports on the Work of the Government 9

4.1 Word Formation of the China English Lexis 9

4.2 Semantic Features of the China English Lexis 12

4.3 Features of the Diction of the China English Lexis 14

5. Conclusion 15

Works Cited 17

1. Introduction

With the emergence and fast development of information technology, the human society has entered the information age, where interpersonal communication is faster and more convenient than ever before. Distance between people is closer and verbal communication is becoming more important. As the most widely used language in the world, English is also experiencing rapid development, and has become the language for global communication. The localization of English in various areas is one of the results of globalization, thus producing a great variety of English under the influence of many factors like geographical environment, ethnicity and cultural uniquenesses. In addition to British English and American English, regional varieties flourish in such forms as Australian English, Indian English and Singaporean English, among many others.

The global spread of English also exerts great impact on the language of Chinese. The development of China English can be seen as a process of linguistic and cultural regeneration of English in Chinese context. English in China, like other varieties of English has its own characteristics and is labeled “China English” by some scholars, although some features of it are still open to questioning and worth studying. The development of English learning and practice in China requires more attention to be paid to China English in the 21st century. By means of a case study of Reports on the Work of the Government, this paper aims at proving the ubiquitous existence and lexical characteristics of China English.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Research Background: China English as a Variety of English

There is no denying the fact that the English-speaking population has reached a great number in the 21st century, and it is proved to be very true by history.

In fact, English has a history of only about 1,500 years, which is much shorter than that of Chinese, Latin, Greek or French. But it has been on the move since its initial landing in England from northern Europe in the 5th century. The English language reached every corner of the world with the British colonizers. It can be seen that English has already been used nearly all around the globe.

For another, the drastic development of modern science and technology, the coming information age, are all accelerating international exchanges and the wider spread of English.

With the wide spread of English all around the world, the language has been integrated with different cultures and many varieties of English have thus been created. These varieties are called world Englishes or oversea English varieties, such as Indian English and Singapore English. With regard to the research of the varieties of world English, the famous scholar Kachru is worth mentioning.

Professor Kachru divided the English varieties into three kinds in terms of three concentric circles: the inner circle, the outer circle and the expanding circle. The inner circle is the normative English, namely, institutionalized variety, which refers to the traditional culture and linguistic bases of English, expanding from the UK, and the USA, Canada, as well as the English spoken by the speakers of Australia and New Zealand. The outer circle represents the institutionalized non-native varieties, including that of India, Singapore and Nigeria. The expanding circle is the performative varieties of the language which are used essentially in EFL (English as a foreign language) contexts, including that of Japan, Russia, and China.These varieties have their own national and cultural characteristics, while China English is surely one of them.

2.2 Definitions and Characteristics of China English in Contrast with Chinese English

2.2.1 Definitions and Characteristics of China English

The concept of “China English” has been discussed and studied by many scholars in the past over 20 years. There are many kinds of definitions given to it, some of which are proposed by domestic scholars:

The term China English was generally believed to be introduced by Ge Chuangui in his article On Some Problems in Chinese-English Translation in 1980. In the paper, Professor Ge holds that English is the common language of English-speaking countries with similar cultural background. Certainly, English should be used in the same way by people from non-English-speaking countries. However, these countries have different cultural backgrounds and national conditions. As for China, no matter in the past or in present day, there are always some unique things of our own that we have to express in English. Professor Ge gave some examples in his article, such as “The Four books” (四书), “The Five Classics” (五经), “eight legged essay” (八股文), “Han Linyuan” (翰林院), “Four Modernizations” (四个现代化), “xiucai” (秀才), “May Fourth Movement” (五四运动), “the Great Leap Forward” (大跃进),“Two Hundreds Policy” (双百方针), etc.

Professor Ge’s opinion has been supported by many scholars. Professor Wang Rongpei (1991) agrees that China English is a distinct presence. In his article The Objective Existence of China English, he defines it as “the combination of standard English used by the native speakers and English with special cultural features in China”. The definition can be interpreted as follows: (1) it is used by Chinese people on the native soil; (2) it features standard English at its core; (3) it embodies the culture of China and has Chinese features.

Xie Zhijun (1995) defines China English as “an interference variety used by Chinese people in cross-cultural communication; the interference is caused by the Chinese language itself, the way of Chinese thinking and the Chinese culture existing in every aspect of China English. China English is based on the normative English and is able to be a distinct member of world Englishes. The frequency of using China English and its communication effect are related to the English proficiency of Chinese users’ .”

Jia Guanjie and Xiang Mingyou (1997) argue that China English is used by the Chinese with standard English as its core. China English is an indispensable variant or it is a variant beneficial to the dissemination of Chinese culture.

Another definition is offered by Pan Zhangxian (2004). She provides a broad and comprehensive definition of China English as the Chinese variety of English. It refers to English used by the speakers with Chinese linguistic and cultural backgrounds. It can facilitate the purpose and functioning of communication and can thus be accepted by English speakers with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds.

China English has its own characteristics. It differs from standard English mainly in vocabulary and syntax.

Vocabulary is what mainly separates China English from standard English. Vocabulary here not only refers to dictionary entries, but also those absent with Chinese characteristics and cultural factors, such as the traditional Chinese musical instrument “erhu” (二胡), the traditional sport “Tai Chi”(太极)，the traditional food “jiaozi” (饺子) and so on. Vocabulary of China English may concern multiple disciplines, but primarily a notable presence in politics. China English in politics are numerous, such as reform and opening up (改革开放), the South-to-North Water Diversion Project (南水北调工程), The important thought of Three-Represents (三个代表重要思想), the scientific outlook on development (科学发展观), etc. In addition, “计划生育政策” is a phrase with six Chinese characters. While when it goes into in the form of a long phrase: the policy of family planning that allows one married couple to have only one child. In this case, no matter how long the English translation is, it is a phrase in Chinese. Therefore, it should be classified under the category of vocabulary here.

In syntactical terms, adverbials are placed before the verb in Chinese but are placed in the end of a sentence in English. Adverbial clauses are put before the main clause in Chinese but are put after the main clause in English. Attributes are before the elements which are being modified in Chinese; but in English, if they are words, they will be put before the elements that they modify and if they are phrases or clauses, they will be put after these elements” (汪榕培9). For example, English-speaking people may say, “She went shopping after lunch” while a Chinese may say, “午饭后她去购物了”; English-speaking people may say, “Don’t do it if you don’t want to” while a Chinese may say, “如果你不想做，那就不要做了”. Furthermore, in Chinese writing, there is a tendency to express opinion from a subjective point of view by using such sentence patterns as “我认为”(I think that...), “我绝不能” (I must not...), etc. But in English passages, authors prefer to use more implied and euphemistic sentence patterns to express their opinions.

2.2.2 Differences Between China English and Chinese English

Chinglish is an abbreviation for Chinese English, which is called “中式英语” in Chinese. It is a language with unique Chinese characteristics in terms of grammar, vocabulary and expression. And Chinglish is an inevitable linguistic and cultural phenomenon in the process of English learning.

Li Wenzhong holds that “Chinese English is a malformed language which does not conform to standard English or English cultural customs in English communication, used by English learners and users in China who, influenced by their mother tongue, mechanically employ Chinese language rules and customs in English”.

Joan Pinkham (2000), a professional translator, defines Chinglish in her book The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish as “a miss-happened, hybrid language that is neither English nor Chinese, but that might be described as ‘English with Chinese characteristics’ ”.

To sum up, Chinglish is a deformed English phenomenon misused by Chinese people, in which the content is ungrammatically or unidiomatically expressed compared with standard English.

Concerning the relationship between China English and Chinglish, Li Wenzhong (1993) maintains that both China English and Chinglish express unique things in China and bear Chinese features. But China English belongs to normative English whose influences will increase with the growing overseas publicity campaign. On the contrary, Chinglish is a deformed language phenomenon. It can be an obstacle in international communication. Therefore, there are fundamental differences between China English and Chinglish.

(1) Chinese English often occurs in the case of individual English users, while China English is usually used to express China-related subjects..

(2) Chinese English is unstable and should be improved, while China English is relatively stable; and its development keeps up with the social and cultural changes in China.

(3) Chinese English is a result of the negative interference of Chinese, including grammatical interference and the interference of Chinese thinking patterns. China English is used to disseminate Chinese culture and to express unique things in China.

(4) The users of Chinese English mostly consist of English learners, who, owing to language incompetence, create English expressions randomly. On the other hand, the users of China English include people who work in journalism and media media who conform to the commonality of standard English and exerts positive impacts on common language learners.

In summary, there are some similarities between Chinese English and China English, as they are both influenced by Chinese way of thinking and tinted with Chinese characteristics. Yet there are also some differences between these two concepts. As a carrier of newly emerging Chinese new words and expressions and an established language phenomenon in English, China English should be vigorously advocated in order to enhance communication with foreign countries..On the contrary, Chinese English does not conform to the rules of standard English and hinders communication. Therefore, the use of Chinese English should be minimized.

2.3 Research Methodology

By means of the empirical study and a case study on the selected sample texts, the research is mainly conducting an qualitative analysis on the lexical characteristics of China English

The sample texts chosen for this study are the English versions of Reports on the Work of the Government in 2012, 2013, and 2014. The characteristics of text-based approaches are:

1. It utilizes three political reports by Chinese top leaders as sample texts.
2. It takes full advantage of the empirical study which includes data collection, analysis, classification, and summary.
3. It depends largely on a qualitative analytic approach.

Additionally, a combination of description and explanation is used in this study. No explanation is dependable without sufficient description indeed, nor is adequate description necessary in a study without enough explanation.

Such question as “what are the features of China English lexis in word formation, semantics and diction?” is answered according to observation and data collection of the sample texts. Lexical characteristics of China English will be analyzed based on the sample texts through the analyzing techniques as well, thus conclusions can be drawn.

3. An Overview on Report on the Work of the Government

3.1 A Description of Report on the Work of the Government

Report on the Work of the Government, hereafter abbreviated as RWG, is an annual official document of the Chinese government. Governments at all levels in China must report to the Bureau of the Assembly deputies and CPPCC members attending the annual meeting of the local People’s Congress and the Political Consultative Conference (commonly known as the “two sessions”). The drafting of national RWG is organized by the Research Office of the State Council and other related departments. RWG is a crystallization of collective wisdom. Therefore, its content and diction come out of repeated discussion and long-standing deliberation.

As a representative document of the government, RWG involves reviewing both achievements and defects of the past year or the past five years and looking into the future, laying down future plans for the next years. It deals with various issues, covering all aspects of life, including economy, politics, culture, education, foreign affairs, environmental protection, ethnic groups, social security, etc.

RWG, reporting the government work as well as its plans, is to be delivered to the deputies of the People’s Congress for review and approval. After its approval, the plans put forward in RWG can be deemed as a general guideline for the work of the central and local governments. It is also an authoritative source of information about the government work and policies. Therefore, it is highly informative and official.

3.2 Major Linguistic Characteristics of Report on the Work of the Government

Delivered to the deputies of the People’s Congress by the Prime Minster, RWG requires a formal language style which conduces to its seriousness and authority. RWG language is unique for its frequent use of formal words, political jargons and complicated but logically sound sentences.

Besides, RWG is also a written report for public reading. To ensure easy and accurate understanding of the messages for its readers, RWG tends to use plain or excessively specialized language. RWG economizes on flowery words and rhetoric devices in order to make people familiar with the performance of the government rather than to pursue aesthetic goals.

Therefore, the translation of RWG is different from that of literary works. It requires that the translator should possess profound political expertise and superior language competence in both Chinese and English. Meanwhile, the basic principle is loyalty to the original text, which is determined by the stylistic style, discourse function and political nature of RWG.

3.3 The Relevance of Report on the Work of the Government to the Study of China English

The high concentration of Chinese-featured expressions in RWG renders to it the exemplary role it plays in the study of China English. Generally, the reasons why the English versions of RWGs are chosen as sample texts are:

1. The words and expressions in RWGs are regarded to be the most formal, which are based on the lexis of normative English.

(2) The English versions of RWGs are translated by the authoritative personnel from Chinese Central Translation Bureau to give the English version of RWGs a sense of prestige and reliability.

(3) The English versions of RWGs are accepted and understood by both foreign and domestic readers, so they best represent China English and Chinese culture.

4. An Analysis of the Lexical Characteristics of China English in the English Version of Reports on the Work of the Government

4.1 Word Formation of the China English Lexis

4.1.1 Pinyin Words

Pinyin words in China English are invented and assigned meanings through the process of transliteration. This process of word formation is said to be unique to China English. The spellings of Pinyin words are realized through the alphabet of Mandarin Chinese. When there is a gap or inadequacy in the vocabulary of the native English, it may sometimes be better transliterated into Pinyin words than normally expressed.

Most Chinese personal and geographical names can be translated into Pinyin words either completely or partly in due proportion to their popularity in use all around the world. Here are some examples:

(1) Chinese personal names

a. “Take Deng Xiaoping Theory, the important thought of Three Represents and the Scientific Outlook on Development as our guide; implement the guiding principles of Comrade Xi Jinping"s important speeches.” (RWG 2014)

b. “Let all of us rally closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Hu Jintao as General Secretary.” (RWG 2012)

(2) Chinese geographical names

a. “The China (Shanghai) Pilot Free Trade Zone was established and the management model of pre-establishment national treatment (PENT) with a negative list was introduced.” (RWG 2014)

b. “Last year, several severe natural disasters occurred in China, including earthquakes in Lushan, Sichuan Province, and in Min and Zhang counties, Gansu Province; floods in the Heilong, Songhua and Nen river areas.” (RWG 2014)

c. “We will promote economic integration in the Yangtze River Delta, deepen economic cooperation in the pan-Pearl River Delta, and further coordinate development in the Bohai Rim region and the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region.” (RWG 2014)

d. “We successfully hosted the Games of the XXIX Olympiad and the XIII Paralympic Games in Beijing and the World Expo in Shanghai. We successfully mitigated the impact of the massive Wenchuan earthquake, the strong Yushu earthquake, the huge Zhugqu mudslide and other natural disasters and carried out post-disaster recovery and reconstruction.” (RWG 2013)

Pinyin words are easy, direct and full of exotic flavor and they keep alive after their wide spread over time around the world.

4.1.2 Number plus Key Word(s)

In Chinese, people tend to use number plus key word(s) to achieve conciseness. China English is also liable to take this approach. Hence, this feature of China English lexis can be examined in the following examples:

a. “Hold high the great banner of socialism with Chinese characteristics; take Deng Xiaoping Theory, the important thought of Three Represents...” (The Party must always represent the requirements of the development of China’s advanced productive forces, the orientation of the development of China’s advanced culture, and the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority of the people in China.) (RWG 2014)

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