探究初中生英语输出能力的培养

论文总字数：31314字

摘 要

语言学习者坚持致力于研究语言输入是寻求促进学生语言能力综合全面发展的切实有效的必要步骤，同时只有将理论联系实际，在这些问题上才能有所突破，输入研究也才能进一步发展。本文以克拉申的输入假说和斯温的输出假说理论为基础，并且综合了当前诸多英语输出能力培养理论研究成果。首先从应试教育弊病和母语环境的角度分析了我国初中英语教学现存的输出能力薄弱的问题，其次论证了如何在初中英语新课程标准的指导下通过输入与输的两相结合来培养提高学生的输出能力，从而使学生能更好的展现英语语言能力。

关键词：初中英语教育；应试教育；输出假说；输入假说；英语新课标

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 2

3. Functions of Language Output 2

3.1 Function of noticing/triggering 3

3.2 Function of hypothesis testing 3

3.3 Function of metalinguistic reflection 4

4. Current situation 4

4.1 The specific situation of junior middle school students 5

4.2 Language environment 5

4.3 Examination-oriented education 5

5. Strategies of cultivating students’ output ability 6

5.1 Four basic strategies 6

5.2 More useful strategies 9

6. Conclusion 10

Works Cited 12

1. Introduction

As time goes by, economic globalization continues to evolve, therefore English has been infiltrating through every field of the society and have become one of the essential parts in people’s life. Since the most obvious expression of language competence is listening, speaking, reading and writing, teachers all devote themselves to helping students have a good grasp of those four kinds of knowledge and transforming it into linguistic competence. Swain (1985), after observing and investigating the immersion education of French as a second language, suggests that language output is the necessary process in second language acquisition. Swain’s Output Hypothesis also proposes that output can facilitate L2 accuracy because of three functions: noticing/triggering, hypothesis testing and metalinguistic reflection. Although many researchers and teachers believe that language output is an indispensable part of language acquisition, the discussion of the role of output in language acquisition is not so popular that there are only a few empirical studies that meet the norms. This paper analyses how to develop students’ output ability in junior middle school to help them get better acquisition of English.

The implementation of the new curriculum reforms has made the new teaching ideas popular. However, under the reform environment, there are still many junior high school English educators who insist on traditional guidance of teaching concepts, applying traditional teaching methods in classroom teaching activities. In the special period when the old teaching thoughts were replaced, the teacher’s teaching choices and behaviors were directly connected to the student’s English learning effect. English is normally the first foreign language of Chinese students, which means English learning experience and effects are related to the students’ enthusiasm for exploring more foreign language learning. If teachers can’t keep pace with the times and use new teaching ideas which is in accordance with the characteristics of the rapid development of the word to guide students, language teaching will stagnate and students’ language proficiency will be limited to written exercises and can’t really benefit from English learning.

The progress of education has enriched the needs of society and students. Under the brand new background of education reform, teachers should guide students to acquire rich knowledge of English. It is clear that the reform of English teaching is the product of the development of the times. On the basis of respecting the essence of traditional teaching objectives, we should pay attention to students’ practical ability and attach importance to the cultivation of students’ English application ability. The knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, tense and spoken English in the classroom should be combined to apply in our daily life.

2. Literature Review

The output hypothesis has its specific historical background. In the mid-1970s, the Input Hypothesis (Krashen1985) based on generative linguistics had a significant impact on second language teaching. According to the Input Hypothesis, the condition of language acquisition is that the learners can understand the input (comprehensible input) and language input contains language items which are at a level a little higher than that the learner can already understand, that is, the famous “i 1” theory. Input hypothesis is one of Krashen’ s five hypotheses which has become the prominent paradigm in SLA. This states that language abilities can be naturally acquired by understanding language input in context and language output is only the result of language acquisition. However, Swain questioned that statement and put forward the Output Hypothesis based on his own research on French immersion teaching in Canada. Swain pointed out that although language input is crucial to second language learning, language input alone can not guarantee that learners can achieve the level of native speakers in terms of grammatical expression and so on. “Successful L2 learners need both comprehensible input and comprehensible output. Comprehensible output plays an uniquely necessary role in developing a higher level of language acquisition”. Swain’s output hypothesis changes people’s perception of the use of language output. Researchers who agree with the output hypothesis provide the basis for it from the aspects of theory and empirical evidence. Besides, Gass’s second language acquisition model that composes of five parts closely connected: apperceived input, comprehended input, intake, integration and output also can be adopted as a reference.

3. Functions of Language Output

Swain found that these learners of immersion education did not develop perfect second language abilities after years of exposure to high-quality language input because the immersion education at that time did not urge learners to go further in quality and quantity of output. Accordingly, she suggests that the function of the output is irreplaceable and therefore a essential element in the process of the second language acquisition. Swain introduced comprehensible output hypothesis to make his theory correspond with Krashen’s comprehensible input hypothesis.

3.1 Function of noticing/triggering

The noticing/triggering function of the output has been validated in a great deal of experiments and many researchers found that second language learners would be aware of the problems in their language ability in the process of output, thus, it is possible for the output to play the role of noticing/triggering. For instances, Swainamp;Lapkin (1995) supported the function through the think-aloud method while a group of scholars including Izumi (1999) through the underline method and Izumi (2000) himself confirmed the existence of the function of noticing/triggering again by the method of taking notes. Nevertheless, it is essential to illustrate that even though the output does inspire learners to pay attention to their own language problems and attention resulting from that may promote the further development of interlanguage, attention to their own language problems is not a sufficient condition for acquisition. The object of the attention is subsequent input, otherwise such attention is meaningless for acquisition. In other words, it must be closely connected to the input if the output is targeted at achieving the function of noticing/triggering.

3.2 Function of hypothesis testing

Pica and some other scholars discovered that language learners would partially correct their own words through feedback. These corrections are the process in which learners continue to test their hypotheses by experimenting with second language expressions. In a sense, these outputs themselves are hypotheses that learners “try new language forms and structures in order to expand their interlanguage needs” (swain 1995: 132). However, if the learner does not get a subsequent input such as the reply from another speaker to verify the hypothesis, the hypothesis will be suspended. Output may not be the only way for language learners to make assumptions because learners could also make assumptions about the target language and its use in the process of understanding, especially when they encounter difficulties. However, the output makes the learner’s hypothesis explicit, from which further input material can be possibly obtained from another interlocutor to verify that the hypothesis. It can be argued that which part the learner corrects and how they corrects the discourse is not entirely dependent on external factors such as feedback from the teacher since the learner does not modify all the utterances indicated in the feedback. In fact, it is the learner’ s internal factors that play decisive roles.

3.3 Function of metalinguistic reflection

When learners encounter uncertain problems in the process of output, they have other choice that is to solve the problem by means of using knowledge that has been absorbed but has not yet been fully mastered. Learners use language to discuss the language, reflect on the language itself, and find the basis for the form-meaning connection in language used in the output. Metalinguistic activity is a negotiation of linguistic forms, rather than a linguistic communication activity dominated by meaning. Although metalinguistic reflection occurs in the process of language output, there are essential differences between metalinguistic reflection and language output in general sense. It can be said that the metalinguistic reflection induced by the output activity must rely on the existing absorption.

4. Current situation

Language output ability refers to the learners’ ability to output information from their thoughts and their understanding of the world on the basis of mastering grammar and cultural background of the target language. In China, English teaching in junior middle school is mainly based on teachers’ output of knowledge while students has few chances to express and test themselves.

4.1 The specific situation of junior middle school students

Serving as a connecting link of primary school and senior high school, junior middle school is like the middle step of triple jump. It is more difficult than primary school, but it is not yet high school. Therefore, the cultivation of oral expression ability in junior middle school could lay a solid foundation for subsequent high school English learning which enables students to deal with more difficult language learning problems. Besides, helping students build self-confidence actually perform a vital role in language learning. Although the oral expression in junior middle school English is relatively simple, few students are willing to try to express themselves in class, let alone outside class. The reason why students dare not express themselves is not the difficulty of textbooks but the lack of encouragement and self-confidence in learning. Lack of self-confidence has greatly hindered students’ enthusiasm for oral English expression, and will affect other aspects of English learning.

4.2 Language environment

The content of English is dull and hard to master quickly so the function of language needs to be reflected in specific situations. We were born in China and very few people speak English around the students. In class, it is difficult for the teacher to let all the students have a chance to practise because China implement large-class teaching based on the vast majority of population. Schools in China usually have 50 or 60 students every class and some even more. The new English national curriculum requires that teaching and learning must be directed to all students, however, at this stage in China it is impossible to allow every student to practice speaking English in class. Only a few groups can be selected for the presentation and performance after group drills. Most students are only spectators and their enthusiasm for acting is limited, they cannot get enough sense of achievement after oral practice. So the practice of oral English has had little effect.

4.3 Examination-oriented education

For a long time in junior middle school, great cares was taken to inculcate the English knowledge such as words, phrases and various rules of grammar which is also the only teaching goal of many teachers. In order to improve students’ academic performance, teachers simply regard English as a tool for students to achieve good marks. The wrong teaching idea allows teachers and students to do a great quantity of mechanical exercises like memorization and repeated copying in English teaching and learning, neglecting the development of language output ability, and paying more attention to the ability of the English language study to be tested so that the English teaching and learning turn to stay on the surface without deep study.

5. Strategies of cultivating students’ output ability

The three main functions of output are all connected with input. It is clear that learners can use output to make up for the deficiency of original knowledge structure so as to promote learners to absorb from language input. Moreover, almost all of the studies of output exercises include language input and language acquisition without output, in addition to some special examples provided by Krashen, is also very rare.

5.1 Four basic strategies

English language learning requires students to master the four basic skills: listening, speaking, writing and reading. It is universally acknowledged that listening and reading belong to language input while speaking and writing are output. However, language acquisition is no doubt based on a sufficient number of input. Hence listening and reading are important ways to acquire language knowledge, as well as the premise of writing and speaking.

5.1.1 Practicing listening

We have to learn to listen to others especially native speakers before we can say something. Mechanical repetition may not be born so the key point of listening training is to take full advantage of life and interest and listening in created context. For example, we’ll never be tired of listening to our favourite English songs or if we travel abroad and what we need to listen is concerned with what we are going to do next, we won’t give up listening until we understand it. Situation guidance in oral English teaching make students have a sense of identity more quickly. Also, the oral expression in the situation helps to enhance students’ sense of substitution which make them more relaxed. To a greater extent, it can avoid the pressure and tension of traditional instillation teaching and thus increasing students’ learning efficiency. When creating teaching and learning environment, we should lay emphasis on the content that is closely related to the actual life scene, or choose the field that students are more interested in to set up and arrange more targeted teaching contents. The biological age of the senior middle school students determines that their personality is semi-mature and semi-childish. Although rational thinking is developing rapidly, the perceptual thinking still dominates. The abstract thinking of students in this period is relatively weak and they need more vivid and interesting teaching scenes to help them develop language output ability. The creation of interesting emotional environment can provoke the students to positively take part in listening and try to talk with others. Interesting situations help carry out foreign language learning and strengthen the students" sense of reality which to a certain extent improve learning efficiency.

5.1.2 Practice reading

The accumulation of reading is the basis of writing. Without enough basic training of reading, the writing ability will not be improved. Students are often keen to buy some books about how to write with attractive titles which actually cannot do significant amounts of work and only by reading can there be materials to use when writing. Reading is of great importance in the accumulation of words. Also,vocabulary is the most basic composition of sentences, only with a large number of words in the mind can English writing get better and better. Therefore, the first step to improve the writing ability of junior middle school students is to read more to enrich their vocabulary. When reading new articles, we should not only understand the pronunciation and meaning of the new words but also go back to find out how to use the common vocabulary. Remembering single words is very stiff and boring, students can organize sentences in series through their own organization. In order to keep a firm memory of a single word, it is necessary for students to review the word and its usage over and over again to reinforce those hard words. Besides, reading especially foreign journals and original version,can not only broaden our horizons but make us have a deep understanding of cultural backgrounds of English-speaking countries which in turn promote students’ interest in reading more. For instance, some world famous books range from Robinson Crusoe to Harry Potter, they all attract much attention and have a lot of loyal readers. The understanding of these countries’ living habits through reading also helps students to communicate more confidently and accurately in English. Thus ability of speaking and writing can be improved simultaneously.

5.1.3 Cultivating students’ ability of speaking

After a large number of input accumulation, we should pay more attention to how to transfer input into output. Output ability in English is mainly about speaking and writing. In order to carry out the requirements of the new English national curriculum standard, student-centered model and modern education evaluation are indispensable.

It is an impactful way to train students" oral expression ability in the teaching of reading. Compulsory Education English Curriculum Standard requires junior middle school students to have a natural tone of voice. Consequently, during the process of language teaching, teachers ought to effectively make guidance to students to read aloud in individual reading, group reading and so on. Through reading to obtain the elimination, absorption, development of students’ knowledge. The students who read through the tone of the text in a particular context and read it out of humor or exhilaration or joy or sadness can realize the charm of writing positively and understand the beauty of speech which stimulate students" desire to achieve oral language and foster students" oral ability.

In oral training, it is of great importance to read and recite the passage. Most of our teachers never study abroad and lack of standard spoken language. Therefore, it is an effective means to correct students" pronunciation by following the text recording. Reciting the text can help students store vocabulary and idioms and form a quick flow and sense of language. This process is very necessary for later learning, and it is also the guarantee of developing students" oral English intercommunication ability. In order to make students realize the formation of oral English ability, it is necessary to have a large amount of effective input and accumulation of language materials as the basis. Teachers are able to check some students" endorsements on a daily basis in the course of practical teaching and give them a grade in terms of their fluency and pronunciation and intonation, which are recorded, published and rewarded every month in order to play an incentive role. In the meantime, we shall grasp this chance to cultivate students’ self-confidence.

5.1.4 Cultivating students’ ability of writing

More imitation and reading. English writing as a practical output ability has still been a weak part of current Chinese English teaching. Nowadays, the traditional product teaching method has taken the dominant role in English writing teaching, which follows the model of “teacher provides the topic，then the students write and finally the teacher evaluates”. It is not enough to make perfect writing by simply using students" tired words. Trying to start with writing imitation. Writing is also classified, junior English writing can be started from imitating composition. First, master the simple sentence and the fixed sentence and then practice, thus will master the basic characteristic and request of this kinds of writing. At the same time, students need to put emphasis on the common form of mind and the characteristic of expression. Besides, more reading and memorization of the model text are helpful to form a better sense of language and to avoid incorrect expressions of English. In order to enrich the content of English writing, there must be sufficient material accumulation. Words and phrases should be accumulated as well as hot issues or topics. On the basis of imitation, students can gradually improve their writing skills and learn how to use appropriate English sentences to express their themes.

Group cooperation is always necessary. Students can be divided into several study groups to improve written expression. We should pay attention to the collocation when grouping. That is to say, students with good written expression ability and poor writing ability should be divided into the same group. So students will be helpful and are willing to form a more harmonious, pleasant learning atmosphere to improve the performance of the members who are in it. The advantage of group cooperation lies in improving the students’ written expression ability with a more acceptable way, enhancing their initiative consciousness of learning, and developing their self-study ability, but they may encounter some puzzles that can not be answered. Therefore, teachers are asked to help at any time and are required to maintain a higher frequency of inspection. Since the number of students in a group is generally three to four, teacher can join the members’ conversation. If allowed in class, we can also have an error correction competition of articles with some mistakes between different groups, letting the unperformed group observe and evaluate which makes students find out their problems and shortcomings in written expression more clearly.

5.2 More useful strategies

It is also worth focusing on the common issues in the teaching of various subjects. Strategies found in subjects like Maths, History and so on can also be effectively applied to English teaching. The Student-centered model and effective evaluation model is no doubt of great importance.

5.2.1 Emphasizing the Student-centered model

In the traditional mode of English teaching, the teacher says that the teaching method of listening to the students is taken for granted. However, students in this mode not only tend to rely too much on psychology, but also suppress the initiative and enthusiasm of speaking English. Teachers must change the concept of teaching and learning in tradition and view the students as the main body of learning and become the center of teaching and learning. The teacher himself is the guide. He is the assistant to offer students more chances to learn English. At the same time, the teacher should try to change the way of passing the price and evaluating the price to encourage. Unless it is a mistake of principle, the teacher should first offer help to students" cultivation of good habit in oral expression. Then depending on the situation to optimize the details.

5.2.2 Adjust the evaluation model

剩余内容已隐藏，请支付后下载全文，论文总字数：31314字