论文总字数：37098字

摘 要

初中是学习英语的重要时期，由于英语学科的特殊性，在英语课堂中学生比在其他课堂更容易犯错。错误的出现是不可避免的，因此教师的纠错理念与方式至关重要，如何恰当纠错才能激发学生对于英语学习的兴趣成了每个教师必须面对的实际问题。

本文以纠错理论为基础，联系国内外的一些已有的纠错策略，针对初中英语课堂中学生产生错误的情况和教师纠错的情况进行研究。把错误的界定，类型，原因还有一些纠错理论运用于文中，结合初中英语课堂教学的实际情况，指出了初中英语教学中教师纠错存在的一些问题，明确了纠错的原则并且提出了教师应该如何纠错的建议。最后对文章进行了总结，承认本文的局限性并且对未来提出期望。

关键词：纠错；英语课堂教学；初中

Contents

1. Introduction 1

1.1 Background of the paper 1

1.2 Purpose and significance of the paper 1

1.3 Structure of the paper 2

2. Literature Review 2

2.1 Definition of errors 2

2.2 Types of errors 3

2.3 Causes of errors 4

2.4 Theories of error analysis 5

2.5 Studies about Error Correction at Home and Abroad 6

3. Problems Existing in Error Correction in English Teaching of Middle School 8

3.1 Teachers’ misconceptions about error correction 8

3.2 Teachers’ and students’ different preference towards error correction 10

4. Principles and Methods of Error Correction in English Teaching of Middle School 11

4.1 Principles of error correction in English teaching 11

4.2 Methods of error correction in English teaching 13

5. Conclusion 16

Works Cited 17

1. Introduction

1.1 Background of the paper

Since the 1950s, there has been a popular study of learners’ errors in the field of foreign language learning. Scholars at home and abroad have done a lot of empirical research, which provides theoretical and practical guidance for teachers’ error correction in practical English teaching class. Meanwhile, with the changes of different teaching methods, teachers hold different attitudes towards errors. Nowadays, communicative teaching method is popular in China. Teachers are more tolerant of errors than before, so they improve their behavior of correcting errors a lot. However, teachers are always puzzled about students’ errors in the process of English teaching. As we know, it is common that teachers take the responsibility of error correction, so students don’t know the importance of error correction when they use English. How should teachers treat students’ errors? What should teachers do to help students improve their awareness of error correction and find effective ways to correct errors? They are two meaningful but a bit difficult questions that deserve thinking.

1.2 Purpose and significance of the paper

The aim of education and teaching activities is to standardize students’ learning behaviors so that they can know about their shortcomings and improve their ability in a harmonious learning atmosphere. And error correction is a vital component of English teaching in junior middle school. Proper ways of correcting errors will help students make clear about their disadvantages and achieve improvement of their ability. Consequently, more interest towards English and more confidence in learning can be achieved by students. On the contrary, if teachers don’t have the right awareness of error correction, their inappropriate behaviors of error correction will lead to the frustration of students’ interest in English learning, which will affect the correct establishment of students’ learning motivation. Strengthening the artistry of error correction is a new teaching requirement for contemporary English teachers of junior middle school according to the new curriculum standard.

Most of theories explore the concrete practice of correcting errors but fail to focus on the practical application. Combining the practical situation in English teaching of junior middle school with error correction theories, the paper aims to analyze the teachers’ and students’ different viewpoints towards error correction and put forward some useful suggestions about error correction.

1.3 Structure of the paper

This article is divided into five parts. The first part is an introduction, which introduces the background of the paper, the purpose and significance of the paper and the structure of the paper. The second part is a literature review, which comprehensively describes the theoretical background of this paper, including the definition of errors, the types of errors, and the causes of errors, as well as some error correction theories. In the third part, the writer will talk about some problems which occur in the middle school English teaching classroom. The fourth part contains some suggestions which introduce some principles of error correction, and provide some teaching suggestions for the teachers. The last part is a summary of the paper which acknowledges the limitations of this paper and puts forward expectations for the future.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Definition of errors

Different scholars define errors and mistakes differently, so we must distinguish them clearly at first. One is the error, which does not conform to grammar and is not consistent with the rules of discourse communication. Errors are made because students lack enough language knowledge and ability. When errors occur, it means a foreign language learner who learns to speak and write in a foreign language deviates from the target language. The other is the mistake which is due to a lack of concentration. Mistakes are easily made in speaking and writing when learners feel tired, fatigue, careless or excited. A mistake is a kind of occasional and avoidable error for a person who has mastered all the rules of language.

2.2 Types of errors

2.2.1 Pre-systematic errors, systematic errors and post-systematic errors

S. P. Corder divided errors into three categories according to the psychological process of learners from the establishment, testing, revision of language rules hypothesis to the final formation of the language system: pre-systematic errors, systematic errors and post-systematic errors. (Corder 47-52) Pre-systematic errors are made in communication by using the limited knowledge of the target language that the learner has learned before he or she has mastered all the rules of the target language. Systematic errors are caused by the imprecise or incomplete understanding of the system of language rules that learners have internalized in the process of learning a language, such as taked and fleed. Post-systematic errors happen when the learner has mastered language rules and can use it correctly but he forgets them temporarily.

2.2.2 Global errors and local errors

Burt and Kiparsky think there are two kinds of errors: global errors and local errors. (Burt amp; Kiparsky 135-142) Global errors occur in the main structure of a sentence, which makes it difficult or incomprehensible to understand, affecting normal communication. Local errors occur in an unimportant part of a sentence that does not affect understanding and daily communication, such as misusing or missing the final form of a verb or noun, etc.

2.3 Causes of errors

2.3.1 Native language interference

For learners whose English is the second language, it is a natural habit to think in a native way when encountering some English-language problems. For instance, it is easy to make English grammar rules equivalent to those of Chinese. As a result, the English syntax is confusing. It is not consistent with the English syntactic structure, and it also has trouble in understanding its Chinese meaning.

2.3.2 Excessive generalization

Over-generalizing or simplifying also accounts. Learners who are accustomed to generalizing grammar rules in English are in a majority, which interferes with learning. For example, teachers are teaching students to use “sing -singer ”“teach-teacher”, students may come up with similar errors such as“arm-armor”.

2.3.3 Cultural background

Different countries have different cultures. Countries using English as the official language and countries preferring Chinese are no exception. Therefore, studying the cultural background of countries speaking English is of great importance. For instance, the meanings of color are various according to the usage. If the spellings of color are not the same, the meaning it represents is different. For example,“green”is a kind of color while“Green”is the last name.

2.3.4 Teaching strategy

In the teaching process, the teacher’s teaching methods affect teaching strategies. If teachers apply the teaching methods properly, errors will not be made by the teaching strategies. But if methods are not used properly, the teaching strategies may cause errors. The teacher’ s personal feelings, value scales, psychological qualities and so on are definitely considered.

2.3.5 Learner’s own factors  

The learner’s physical and mental health should take into consideration during the teaching process. And teachers have to think whether the student’s IQ is high or low, whether his learning motivation is clear, whether the learning environment is suitable, whether the learning attitude is serious, etc. The changes of learners affect the occurrence of errors to some degree.

2.4 Theories of error analysis

2.4.1 Contrastive analysis

Contrastive analysis is an analysis between the mother tongue and the target language. (Dai amp; Shu 1-7) Learners focus on difficulties and interference factors encountered in the learning process to reduce and prevent the emergence of errors. Sometimes we view errors as the enemy of learning a foreign language. If errors cannot be corrected in time, proper language habits cannot be cultivated.

2.4.2 Error analysis

Error analysis is a theory analyzing errors when learning the target language. The research investigates the nature of language errors and the causes of them, preventing and reducing the occurrence of language errors. Chomsky’ s Language Acquisition Device provides a theoretical basis for linguistic analysis. (Chomsky 127-138) Chomsky believes that the human brain has natural ability of language acquisition, and the language is a rule-dominated system, and has a universal grammatical phenomenon. The error analysis is to improve the target language learning process by comprehensively and systematically analyzing the language errors and mastering the rules of universal grammar acting on the target language .

2.4.3 Inter-language

The inter-language is called the language of the learner. In 1969, Selinker published a paper entitled Inter-language in 1972, which has a profound effect on the second language acquisition. Selinker believes when learning a second language, language learners have an independent language system that is called inter-language. (Selinker 209-231) It has the difference between the mother tongue and the target language. It is somewhere in between. This language system is not fixed, but it gradually moves closer to the right form which is often used in the target language as the learner learns. From studies of inter-language, we can understand that inter-language is filled with the complete process of learning. From mastering the rules of inter-language ,language errors can be gradually reduced and the target language can be approached.

2.5 Studies about Error Correction at Home and Abroad

2.5.1 Studies about error correction at abroad

Edge holds the view that teachers are not hired to make learners’ English standardized, but to increase students’ English level. (Edge 18-20) That is to say, when we communicate in a foreign language, the content of learners’ expression should be noted by teachers. Even if we make errors in order to achieve the accuracy of language, it is a problem worth thinking that how should teachers treat errors so as to promote learners’ learning with errors. The attitude should be positive and peaceful, instead of blindly criticizing and punishing. Edge emphasized the importance of teachers’ aims and attitudes when correcting errors.

Carl James thinks that error correction is helpful in learning a foreign language in the teaching environment. (James 214-219) Seven reasons are listed to stand by error correction: First, correcting errors can be useful to learning especially grammatical errors. Second, learners’ writing language errors are hoped to be corrected. Third, no evidence can prove that misunderstanding is caused by error correction. Fourth, learners who are willing to take risks are more willing to self-correct. Fifth, error correction is more necessary when learners are completing difficult language tasks, because learners cannot self-correct in such cases. Sixth, whether teachers have to correct errors can be decided according to errors’ nature. Seventh, for second-language learners, they need more error correction. So Carl James thinks positively towards error correction.

Scrivener makes some advice on the time as well as methods of error correction according to some empirical studies. He proposes that there are some types of the time for error correction: immediately, several minutes after the error occurs, at the end of the activity, at the end of the class, at the next class, after the course and without error correction. As to who corrects errors, it is divided into the following types: self-correction, student correction, teacher correction, group correction, class correction and referring books. There are six ways of correcting errors: correcting directly, correcting by facial expressions, correcting by actions with expressions, finger gestures, restatement of the wrong sentences; questions. (Scrivener 261-273) The time and method of error correction is crucial to the effect of error correction, so we should consider different correction time and methods for different class types and different learners.

2.5.2 Studies about error correction at home

Professor He Ziran in China also talks about his thought about error correction: Even if teachers constantly urge students to use foreign languages in practice, they often play the role of “judge” or “policeman”in front of students, and correct or even blame students when speaking and writing. (He 2-6) As a result, students who are already somewhat timid in expressing their ideas in foreign languages are even more afraid to speak and write for fear of being accused. A variety of psychological factors, such as the fear of losing face and the fear of being blamed, have formed numerous barriers for students in the process of foreign language learning. He also thinks it is a misunderstanding in foreign language teaching that strict correction is responsible for students.

Professor Yang Huizhong (Yang 19-21) said that teachers must first understand the teaching objects and teaching process, then find various errors, and the reasons for these errors in order to improve teaching as well as help students learn idiomatic English. In addition, professor Yang believes that we should treat the language errors in English learning correctly, regarding them as students’ positive pragmatic strategies, and adopt compensatory teaching methods to provide students with correct usage of native language.

According to Professor Liu Runhong, teachers should know three principles when correcting grammatical errors and balancing the fluency with accuracy of the language: making clear about the essence of errors, clarifying the purpose of teaching activities, not spending too much time correcting errors. (Liu 30-33 ) What’s more, Professor Liu said that students can have an effective language absorption only in ensuring the adequacy of the language input. It is a reliable means of effective and adequate language absorption to make errors reduced and get the quality of inter-language improved.

In view of the characteristics of English learners in China, Cao Xuemei and Dai Weiping believe that self-correction, teacher correction and peer correction are the most effective correction methods as well as the main correction methods in English teaching classroom. (Cao amp; Dai 1-8)

3. Problems Existing in Error Correction in English Teaching of Middle School

Although there are many studies about error correction both at home and abroad, different roles of teachers and students decide their different views and preference for error correction. So there are some problems existing in error correction in English teaching of middle school.

3.1 Teachers’ misconceptions about error correction

3.1.1  Teachers’ misunderstandings of errors

Many teachers are still accustomed to treating phonetic and grammatical errors as the main language errors. Therefore, when the learner produces a pragmatic error that a language expression does not conform to the native expressions, teachers tend to ignore it. Although the expression is grammatically correct and the pronunciation is right, the use of words is not authentic. However, quite a few teachers do not realize that their understanding of the language correctness is flawed, so they may not be able to find the errors in the students’ expressions accurately and then correct it. At the same time, under the requirements of the new curriculum standards, English teaching in junior middle school considers communication as the main aim. As a result, the error that does not hinder communication can be temporarily ignored. If the teacher only pays attention to the accuracy of the language form, it will prevent students from using English to communicate in real situations. It may also cause a blow to their self-confidence and dampen their enthusiasm for speaking English. On the contrary, the accuracy of the content should be greatly noted when expressing in English. Although many teachers have established such an idea in their minds, it has not been done in practical teaching.

3.1.2 Teacher’ s improper methods of error correction

According to some surveys and interviews, the teacher’ s error correction method is sometimes not suitable for the learner’ s receptivity . Some teachers have excessive frequency of correcting errors for students in class, and the methods of error correction are too strict, striving to make no errors in any language form. However, such corrective behavior ignores the emotional needs of students, making learners’ interest in English learning lower and lower. What’ s more, students prefer to remain silent in the classroom, and are not willing to make use of opportunities for themselves to practice oral English, let alone create opportunities in the English class to improve their English. Generally, students in China basically get language knowledge and cultivate language skills through classroom learning. However, in view of the fact that domestic learners generally have dumb English, if teachers are still critical of students’ language expressions in class, more and more learners will join the ranks of dumb English.

3.1.3 Teachers’ tolerance of errors but strictness in action

Most teachers are more tolerant to errors according to the new curriculum. They mentally recognize that the errors students made in expressions do not need to be completely corrected, but should be selectively and strategically corrected. However, actually teachers in the junior middle school do not follow this concept to correct errors. Even if they hope that they can ignore and tolerate some errors, once students make errors, they will still do their best to correct them. Therefore, this shows that many teachers are tolerant to errors from the ideological point of view, but they do not really have a thorough understanding of the idea that communicative teaching method ignores errors in action to some degree, so they have missed this core idea in practical English teaching.

3.2 Teachers’ and students’ different preference towards error correction

The teacher is the main part of correcting errors in English class. But now with the implementation of communicative teaching methods and task-based teaching methods in junior middle school, we encourage peer correction, team correction, collective correction and self-correction. We suspect that the subjects of error correction should be diversified, but actually teachers’ efforts to correct errors in various ways are almost in vain. From the teachers’ point of view, some teachers have made it clear that it is a waste of time for students to correct errors by themselves, so teachers tend to act as the main subject of correcting errors. From the students’ point of view, they are not concerned about who should correct the errors. They think what really matters is the accuracy of correction and the benefits it can bring to their study. And they also recognize the authority of the teacher to correct errors. Students believe that the correction made by teachers are more accurate and effective than that of their classmates. It can be seen that the teachers’ role of error correction in junior middle school under the background of the new curriculum is difficult to change, which has obvious hindrance for teachers and students to understand error correction theories. What’ s more, it will directly affect the students’ ability to learn the language as well as the awareness of self-correction. The traditional idea that teachers are in the main position in English classroom is difficult to eradicate.

4. Principles and Methods of Error Correction in English Teaching of Middle School

In the English learning process, errors are easily made. From some studies and paper, teachers and students have different preference for error correction. Teachers should grasp the correct time and apply different methods to correct errors and increase students’ confidence in English learning. Based on these problems listed above, the paper points out some principles and methods of error correction in English teaching of middle school.

4.1 Principles of error correction in English teaching

4.1.1 Principle of selectivity

There are two major types of errors that students make when they communicate with each other: One is the error, which is caused by the learner’ s lack of understanding of the language system, such as:

When our teacher will come here tomorrow, I will tell her about it. ( comes)

The other type is the mistake, which is accidental and irregular and caused by the learner’ s negligence or emotional factors, such as:

T: What did his mother ask him to do just now?

S:He asked him to write a letter to his father. (her)

Among these two types of errors, the first type of error is often considered to reflect the level of learners’ language, while the second type does not reflect the learners’ true level, which is often considered to be unimportant mistakes. The purpose of language teaching is to improve the learners’ language level, therefore, it is necessary to correct the errors which are able to reflect the learners’ language level, and those which are not important can be ignored. That is to say, in the process of English teaching, the object of error analysis and correction should be errors, while the mistakes need to be relatively tolerant.

4.1.2 Principle of purpose

Students make various errors in all aspects. On the one hand, teachers must correct the students’ language errors. On the other hand, if teachers must correct errors no matter how big or small they are, it will affect the fluency of the English teaching process and discourage students from learning English. However, in general, language teaching has different teaching objects. Teaching objectives are various in every stage. Therefore, in actual situation, to achieve academic success and reach teaching goals, teachers have to follow the principle of purpose, that is to say, the diagnosis and correction of errors should focus on the different purposes of language practice. For example, in the pronunciation class for the purpose of teaching pronunciation and intonation, the errors in speech and intonation must be directly and effectively corrected while the grammatical errors don’ t need to pay too much attention. But in the grammar class for the purpose of mastering grammar rules, grammatical errors have to be corrected while pronunciation and intonation errors can be tolerated.

4.1.3 Principle of encouragement

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