跨文化交际中的中西方时间观的差异

论文总字数：28165字

摘 要

时间观作为非言语交际的重要组成部分,它的交流传递具有深层次的文化内涵。来自不同文化背景的人形成了多样的时间观念。本文讨论了不同的时间概念,并举例阐述了因为时间观念不同而引起的跨文化交际中的交流障碍。由于人们不同的时间观念，因而交际中障碍或错误经常发生。讨论基于时间概念对跨文化交流的影响，有助于更深入了解并把握中美文化不同的时间取向，增进跨文化活动的交流互动，从而避免人们在跨文化交流活动中的冲突和矛盾。

关键词：时间观念；时间导向；时间分类；文化冲突

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 1

3. Classifications Based on Time Concepts 2

3.1 Classifications on Psychological Sense of Time 2

3.2 Classifications on Form of the Time 4

4. Reasons for Different Attitudes to Time 7

4.1 Historical Reasons 7

4.2 Religion and Culture 8

4.3 Reality Factors 8

5. Ways to Avoid Conflicts of Time Concepts 9

5.1 Understanding the Differences and Facing Them Bravely 9

5.2 Avoiding Ethnocentrism 10

5.3 Learning and Drawing Lessons from Others 10

5.4 Perspectives for the Development of Modern Time Orientation 11

6. Conclusion 11

Works Cited 12

1. Introduction

Time orientation is a significant section of the cultural psychological tendency, and it reflects the deep cultural connotation. The use of time reflects the important cultural group values level. American anthropologist E. T. Hall claims that time can change the nature of life, it is one of the most fundamental systems( Hall,1973),because there are spatial and temporal specifications among all behavior in the situation .He also claims that time can speak. The messages passed by time are sonorous and clear. It is neither controlled by consciousness like a sound language, nor easy to let people misconstrue. He divides time according to different habits of culture into monochronic time system and polychronic time system( Hall,1982). Studying different cultural concepts of time is particularly vital in intercultural communication. Seen from the time orientation, there are great differences in the past time, present time, and future time in diverse cultures. The emphasis of the three times are not identical, so four different time orientations in psychologically formed.Studying the differences in time concepts will help us communicate effectively and avoid conflicts in intercultural communication.

2. Literature Review

As a significant aspect of nonverbal communication in intercultural communication, different concepts of time contribute to our understanding of cultural differences. A .L .Kroeber and Kluckhohn give a comprehensive definition of culture in 1952. The culture definition summarizes the studies of culture, which had a wide impact on sociology and anthropology.

Strodtbeck and Kluckhohn propose six value theories, and one of them is the time concept. In their responses to the time concept, they are not only in favor of monochronic time system and polychronic time system proposed by E. T. Hall, but also the past, the present and the future time-oriented theory. They argue that ethnic groups with different culture have different time concepts. They put forward six viewpoints as below (1) the view of human nature;(2) people’s perception of their own relationship with the external environment; (3) people’s views on the relationship between themselves and others; (4)the activities of the human; (5) the concept of space ;(6) the time concept. Kluckhohn and based on Strodtbeck point out that people from different nations and countries have quite different views on these six issues. In return,different opinions based on these issues significantly affect people’ attitudes and behaviors towards their life and work.

3. Classifications Based on Time Concepts

3.1 Classifications on Psychological Sense of Time

Zero-time orientation means that in some cultures people have no time concept, therefore it does not matter for them in the past, present or future. For example, those Indians live in South America and Montana have no time concept, they can not tell the time, or say what time is it .They does not comprehend the sense of time. Another example is that a Afghanistan and his brother arranged a meeting in Kabul, but both of them haven’t decided when to see, year after year, and he is still in Kabul searching for his sibling. This story sounds very interesting, but on the cultural level, it clearly reflects their value of zero- time.

In the tradition of Islam, Muslims consider future belongs to Allah. The cultural groups belong to present-orientation. They are unwilling to predict things to come, thinking that it is not under control. The Philippines and Latin America people consider “now” is the most important. These cultures are more optional and randomness than others in terms of attitude towards time. However, this style full of chivalry often makes Westerners misunderstand them as lazy and inefficient.

Americans believe there are no vocabulary such as “delay” and “wait” in their language. Therefore, if you promise one of the Navajo Indians to give him a horse in autumn, he will become very furious. But if you give a thin and weak horse, and let him ride away immediately, he will be very delighted to accept it. It is real for Navajo to receive presents at once. They do not think of commitment can be achieved in the future. Similarly, Arab people also tend to lay stress on the concept of time. They recognize anyone who wants to understand the situation of the future is somewhat mentally abnormal. No other than God foreknow approaching events, and it is disrespectful for normal people to talk about future. Therefore, if you want to ask an Egyptian farmer how much the product will be, he will feel be offended and regard you as a lunatic.

That people with past-orientation either keep things happened in the past in mind, or treat a thing of the past as what happened just now. As Oriental (especially Chinese) under the influence of Confucian traditional culture are more inclined to believe man’s nature at birth is good, and social orientation links to tradition. Traditional thoughts, rules and methods continue to be recognized, which develop into the in voluntary community, and stipulate behaviors of people. Therefore oriental people look back on the time, that is, they follow past-orientation. People treat past with a distinct sense of reverence, and regard past experience and lessons as important references for today. Relatively, they don’t care much about the future, considering that future is unknown. In contrast, they show interest in distant or ideal future. Before doing things, they consider whether anyone has done them, and what they can experience failures and success. They like quoting from the classics, tracing back to the sources, so conforming to convention has become a kind of social specification.

China has a glorious past, with a history about 5,000 years and outstanding cultural heritage. As a result, ancient, elder, age –old things are respected by people. Associated with this time orientation is the adoration of ancestors, esteem for teachers and the old, taking notice of experience and so on. In general, Chinese proverb “people eat more salt than young man’s meal”, “law of the ancestors is not variable and other traditional ideas all belong to past- orientation.

Christian original sin, that is, man’s nature at birth is evil. It is said that Eva and Adam eat forbidden fruit, committing to original sin. As a result, they lost paradise, degenerated to the present world, suffering deeply. This notion influences people in the west especially Americans. For them there is no way back, only moving forward, can they move forward. (Luo Chaoxiu, 2007:92) Transcending means hope .They set a high value on these thoughts.

The United States of America is established about 200 years. The pioneer spirit makes them focus on the future, they are provided the education oriented to future. Americans must not remain on the current work, instead they are with a view to the following work. They do not care about present situation, convincing that the future will be better through their own efforts. Americans have faith in diligence .They could change the status by efforts, and people with strong determination and unremitting efforts can achieve their goals.

As is known to all that everyone’s opportunity is equal, and history does not matter. As long as exerting yourself, you can succeed. Creativity is the true essence people believe in. So they regard keeping up with the time and keeping an eye on the future as the guide to action. It is also widely recognized that reform and change means success and progress, and things will conquer old things eventually. Influenced by future-orientation, Americans are active and positive. They prefer to break away from conventions rather than comply with standards. Hall points out: “Americans not only divide and arrange the time but also look forward, and focus on the future. We like new things, deliberately pursuing change.”(Zhang Guangbin, 2009:90)

3.2 Classifications on Form of the Time

A famous expert in intercultural communication Guan Shijie argues that we can divide time into linear time and annular time according to different views on time based on culture. (Guan Shijie,1995:24)The oriental, with China as the representative, have linear time concept; the western, with America people and British people as the representative, have annular time concept.

People with linear concept of time regard time as a line, which is a unidirectional movement, just like the river from the source stream to the estuary, once it is lost, you can hardly retrieve. They also believe time has a start as well as an end, and it can be measured by clocks or calendars. “Line of time orientation makes westerners believe that time is irreversible, so they have strong sense of urgency.” The phrases “to the minute” and “in a second” reflect their precise time-using.

Western culture led by Judeo-Christian often view time as a line, and a linear unidirectional motion. The proverb “Time waits for no man” reflects they value time. Westerners waste substances but cherish the time. The pace of their life is fast, which make them conscious of a shortage of time. In Western society, they treat time as a kind of commodity, because it is real and precious. You can measure it, lost it, or borrow it. “Time is money” seems to have become the life credit of westerners.

People with annular time concept perceive time like a circle. It moves in accordance with the order of nature, over and over again, and after a time period everything in the world goes back to the original condition. For Such as day alternation with night, the turnover of season, and the change of age are all in cyclic motion. The thought —reincarnation of Buddhism ，has a profound impact on Chinese people’s concept of time. Novels like Journey to the West features karma and reincarnation.

The concept of annular time makes thrifty Chinese are much more generous than westerners. Basically, the pace of Chinese lifestyle is slow, which reflected in greetings. It can be seen in: “Please walk slowly”, “Enjoy your meal”, “Slow come”. Besides, tense changes do not exist in the syntax of Chinese. The traditional method of calendar is based on the emperor’s titles or temple names. Consequently, people can understand the Chinese calendar unless they are familiar with Chinese history, otherwise they become confused about the sequence of Chinese history.

United States eminent anthropologist Hall divides time into two categories according to different culture groups: one is to comply with polychronic time, the other is to abide by the monochronic time. People who hold polychronic time consider time is scattered, they promote us to do a lot of things at the same time. The completion of a thing or one trade is no limited to the schedule, plan and arrangement. It is flexible. In contrast, people with viewpoint of polychronic time emphasize one should focus on a thing at a specific time, paying attention to plan and arrangement. They are decisive, and see time as line that can be parted but not repeated.

Most countries in Asia, African and Latin America countries are inclined to polychronic time. Influenced by the traditional Confucianism as well as the impact of agriculture, finance and civilization, Chinese are inclined to complete a number of tasks at the same time. For example, a shop assistant can collect money from the first customer, passing on goods to the second customer meanwhile, and even greet to the third customer.

To the contrary, westerners tend to monochronic time. They are careful and cogitative. In order to take advantage of time, they carefully arrange agenda and set a timetable to ensure prior issues. North Americans and Europeans develop one-way time habits.

To some extent, time manipulates people’s social activities. As Mr. Hall claims that, anyone cannot break away from the time control in the west. In fact, the social and business life, and even sex life are restricted by time. It is no wonder that some intelligent people in the west mock themselves to be “slave to nothing but the clock”.

Chinese people usually explain causes and reasons, and then talk about their requirements and opinions. To the contrary, westerners prefer stating their view, followed by basis and reasons.

The way to write the date and address actually reflects that the people of East and West modes of thinking and a sense of time. Chinese focus on the process, which has priority. And message can be from small to large. By contrast, westerners are used to arranging the large amount of information ahead so as to be stressed, because they consider the start surpasses other things.

Differences exist in daily life between Chinese and Americans who tend to the two different time orientations. Sequences selected are different. When answer the phone in China, the caller is the one responsible for defining both the identity. However, in American, and other occidental countries, the receiver introduces himself firstly. Therefore Chinese and American people obey rules without implicit sequence.

Moreover, disparity can be seen in the economy and commercial negotiations .Usually, Chinese people are used to providing reasons to avoid making others feel abrupt and rash ,inducing their viewpoint, finally discussing essential problems. On the contrary, the westerners accustomed to putting forward their own ideas, followed by proofs. Therefore, American people often complain that east negotiators beat around the bush; the easterners think that western negotiations are abrupt and impetuous. Generally, before informing bad news, Chinese say good words to cushion, while the Americans are apt to be direct.

4. Reasons for Different Attitudes to Time

4.1 Historical Reasons

The concept of circular time of Chinese is inseparable from its history environment. Chinese society has given priority to agriculture for a long time. On account of agriculture, farmers make a living by farming gradually developed the habit of arranging time according to the crop growth cycle time in the long life .As time passes, this habit becomes a set. Farmers’ awareness and feelings on the season are especially meticulous. The change of weather is relevant to people"s daily life. “Solar Song” is not only the result of long-term practice, but also a unique way of farmers’ perception of time. Therefore, in the long-term agricultural life, subjected to the climate change, Chinese formed the annular time concept . In contrast, historically speaking, America’s concept of time origins can be traced back to the colonial period. To be effective, south manors in the actual observation find increasing worker output per unit of time is more important than increasing the worker"s time. As a result, the concept of “time thrift” produced. This concept was later emphasized by Benjamin Franklin, he quoted “time is money”. By 1840, the alarm clocks have become essential goods, and it makes the use of linear time possible.

China is one of the four ancient civilizations, with more than 5,000 years of glorious history and splendid culture. It is the history and culture that make Chinese people tend to look back. In contrast, founded 200 years ago, the history of the United States is not long. It is different from Chinese people who can look for answers or solve the problem from their history. To get rid of domestic oppression, early settlers came to this new land, realizing their dreams through their own efforts. In addition, the United States of America is a “large melting pot ”, where is a collection of races.(Jia Yuxin,1997:33 )Most of them come with good wishes and hopes for the future, hoping to realize their dreams and achieve their ambitions.

4.2 Religion and Culture

The accumulation of cultures has developed different concepts of time. The essence of circular time is based on Taoist which is inseparable .Taoist is a native religion, it advocates samsara and pursuing nature. Taoism believes everything has life and death, but death is not absolute, it is just a link in the cosmic life cycle process. Many reasons contribute to time orientations, and one of the most important factors due to the thousands of years the influence of Confucianism. Confucius advocated self-discipline. Confucianism has always show solicitude for history, taking history as a mirror and guiding present and future from history. It is raised that human is born with good nature in Chinese traditional theory. Represented by Confucius, Confucian emphasize on good side. It means that the nature of goodness can return only to looking back .This is why the Chinese people are accustomed to following traditional thinking ,worshiping ancestor , and worshiping old people and experience .

The linear concept of time in the future of the United States is closely related to Christianity and biblical culture. Christian believes human is born with evil nature, which advocates “man’s nature is evil” and “original sin”. In western cultures, human ancestor Adam and Eve eat the forbidden fruit under the temptation of snake, they were forever expelled from paradise, exiled to the world suffering. They never went back to paradise, waiting for the last judgment. For them, there is no way back. This is the origin of time concept of Americans. Under the influence of idea, few Americans obey old rule, instead they look ahead, always focus on the future, trying to achieve immediate goals.

China"s core values have something to do with Confucianism. In Confucian thought, collectivism is valued. It puts emphasis upon collaboration among team members and individual success is owing to the endeavor of all the members in a unit or a group. Christianity are very significant in the west .It is based on the life and doctrine of Jesus Christ. Individualism is the core western values. Collectivism is the representation of social networks, while individualism in a society is a loose confederation of social framework.

4.3 Reality Factors

Real life may reflect a sense of time, and you can enhance or alter the sense of time. Faced with the world circumstances and the change of China, modern Chinese leaders stand on a different ground based on practice-oriented future, and this pragmatic and forward-looking ideas change people’s concept of time step by step. In spite of that, Chinese people tend to are accustomed to taking history as lessons, and looking back. However, the social reality of United States reinforces Americans’ concept of time. There are several aspects. First of all, the values of time of American take effect. Secondly, the reform of industry and the development of science and technology have impact on the concept of time as well. Mass-production (bulk production) increases productivity. The Ford Company develops the first streamline, which compresses working hours and increases working efficiency, besides it lessens the labor intensity. Americans see that as long as they work hard and make use of time, they will be able to create more wealth during a limited time. Technology and science and is developing and brings convenience and quickness, and it also strengthens the concept of linear time .Moreover, in the area of employment, the employers believe that it is important to assess the employees’ comprehensive quality rather than their resumes.

China is on account of the agricultural culture. Farmers on the same land for generations, following the laws of nature, the speed of rural life moves slowly. However, western countries are based on industrial culture. Production lines are the main features, so the time is seen as lines. Once passed, they are never back. Many Americans always refer themselves to the clock. They will be in a mess without clocks.

5. Ways to Avoid Conflicts of Time Concepts

5.1 Understanding the Differences and Facing Them Bravely

Understand differences are the premise to achieve achievements in intercultural communication. In everyday life and learning, we ought to raise awareness of cross-culture, learn and understand people’s different attitudes to time and its usage through many ways and channels. So we can effectively reduce cross-cultural communicative barrier brought by different time orientation. At the same time, we should also understand people belong to different cultures are various in thinking ways because of different historical, geographic, and social surroundings. At last, they form varies of time orientation .In the process of dealing with the other person"s words and deeds, we should understand them sanely.

5.2 Avoiding Ethnocentrism

Time orientations are different in different cultures. It is a relatively stable cultural phenomenon, which influences people’s thinking and action. Consequently, in intercultural communication, people will unconsciously use their time orientation communicating with people of another nation, and often think their ways to handle the matter of time is absolutely right and other people should change their concept of time in accordance with their national cultures. This is “National Center Doctrine” in intercultural communication. (Liang Shumin, 2005:53)Influenced by the guidance of this consciousness, people can hardly have equality of communication and cultural conflicts are inevitable. Therefore, we should respect cultures of other counties, bearing with them and understanding in intercultural communication.

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