论文总字数：34595字

摘 要

《麦克白》是莎士比亚最短最血腥的悲剧，近四百年来深深震撼并吸引着读者。然而，莎士比亚对詹姆斯统治时代的深层关注却为评论家们所忽视。因此，本文运用“文本的历史性和历史的文本性”这一新历史主义最重要的理论，挖掘《麦克白》与它所产生的社会历史环境间的“对话性”关系。本文从四个方面解析文本：首先简单介绍新历史主义的内涵和主要理论；其次采用新历史主义的观点探讨创作《麦克白》的过程，指出这是莎士比亚结合当时的社会历史背景不断进行“商讨”的一个过程；再而揭露《麦克白》反映了詹姆斯时代的特定社会历史背景；最终分析《麦克白》在英国戏剧和文化发展中所起的重大历史作用。因此，本文将有助于对文本的文化层面的解读。

关键词: 《麦克白》; 莎士比亚; 新历史主义; 历史性; 文本性

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 2

3. An Introduction to New Historicism 3

3.1 The Definition of New Historicism 3

3.2 Major Theories of New Historicism 3

4. Macbeth — the Product of Shakespeare’s Negotiation with the Historical Context 5

4.1 The Dynamic Role Shakespeare Played in Creating Macbeth 5

4.2 The Submissive Role Shakespeare Played in Creating Macbeth 7

5. Macbeth — A Realistic Representation of the Society in the James Era 8

5.1 A Brief Account of the Religious and Social Background of the James Era 8

5.2 Characters in Macbeth: Typical Figures of the James Era 9

6. The Historical Power of Macbeth 11

6.1 Dramatic Level 11

6.2 Cultural Level 12

7. Conclusion 13

Works Cited 15

1. Introduction

Shakespeare’ s Macbeth has aroused hot discussions among many critics. However, few critics focus on its historical background. The author was invoked by them into a serious thinking about the specific relationship between Macbeth and its historical background. Is Macbeth deeply influenced by the historical background? Does it have any influence on the history in return? And how did Shakespeare create such a play at that particular time? New Historicism offers a perspective for the author’ s thinking because “the relationship between history and text remains in the center of the New Historicist arguments” (Zhu Gang, 2001: 260). The theories of New Historicism provide the author with wider and firmer basis to make a systematic study on the relationship between Macbeth and its historical context, which in this specific aspect, could be more in depth than the previous studies. The dissertation is divided into mainly four parts. Firstly, it gives a brief introduction to New Historicism and its major theories, especially those which are feasible for the research on Macbeth to offer a theoretical basis. Secondly, it focuses on Shakespeare, applying some theories of New Historicism to analyze how Shakespeare produced Macbeth. The next two chapters deal with the relationship between the text Macbeth and the historical context of the James Era with the help of the well-known New Historicist dictum of “historicity of texts” and “textuality of history” separately. Thirdly, it discusses the influence of history on the text which makes the play a realistic recording of the James Era. And at last, it discloses the influence of the text on the historical context—the historical power of Macbeth. On the whole, the author does a research on Shakespeare’s Macbeth from the perspective of New Historicism in order to show the important value of this play to analyze inter-influence between the play and the historical context of the James Era, and to approach again to the relationship between history and text.

Literature Review

Shakespearean scholars in the 20^th century usually had a religious or moral tendency when they interpreted the drama Macbeth. They thought that the drama focused on the struggle between goodness and evil. Authoritative specialist Muir also called it “the greatest morality play”. So-called “morality play”, in the history of English literature, namely “Christian sermon series” refers to the meaning “theme then writing” that presupposes the ideological barriers. Although great, from the tragedy to morality play, is undoubtedly the degradation (Heilman, 1974: 27). Irving Ribner agreed with Muir’ s judgment and thought that “Macbeth, like the protagonist in the traditional morality play, fluctuated between angel and devil” (Ribner, 1992: 248). More critics equated protagonist Macbeth directly to the embodiment of evil, a people who betrayed his soul. They thought that he betrayed his humanity to the common enemy of mankind like Faust, covenanting with the demon. “He is hostile to all people. He is no longer a member of the human community, and eventually reduced to a evil beast everyone wants to beat” (Bradbrook, 1974: 20). Carrie wrote in one of his articles: “in my opinion, Shakespeare endowed the concept of the objective existence of evil in the metaphysical world to Macbeth in this way” (Curry, 1937: 53). In the academic circles of the 20^th century, similar interpretations could be found everywhere.

Besides, some other critics have their own research focus. Psychoanalytic criticisms pay attention to Shakespeare’ s psyche, the research of his creative process, the effects of the work upon its readers, or the study of psychological types and principles introduced in the work. “Shakespeare didn’t create this drama unconsciously. The period when he created it, the Renaissance was developing rapidly in Europe. The main idea of this movement is that the emphasis of artistic creation should be human being” (Zheng Chuanyin, 2002: 32). Feminist criticisms concentrate on sexual difference and politics inspired from the work. With the development of the society and the progress of humanity, many critics think that the relationship between men and women is always unequal. Generally speaking, men are in the dominated position and women are usually suppressed. “The viewpoint that Lady Macbeth contributes to her husband’ s tragedy is prejudiced. She is nothing but a catalyst and the real person who plays a leading role is Macbeth himself. More than Lady Macbeth, nearly all women are victims of that period” (Yang Aitang, 1996: 4). In addition, archetypal criticisms consider that the style and individual plot arrangement of the work are recurrences of certain archetypes and formulas. The author has a serious thinking about the specific relationship between Macbeth and its historical background from the perspective of New Historicism because few of the critics focus on this aspect.

3. An Introduction to New Historicism

3.1 The Definition of New Historicism

According to the New World Encyclopedia, “New Historicism is an approach to literary criticism and literary theory based on the premise that a literary work should be considered a product of the time, place, and historical circumstances of its composition rather than as an isolated work of art or text”. New Historicism suggests literature must be studied and interpreted within the context of both the history of the author and the history of the critic. New Historicists aim simultaneously to understand the work through its historical context and to understand cultural and intellectual history through literature, which documents the new discipline of the history of ideas. Unlike previous historical criticism, which limited itself to simply demonstrating how a work reflected its time, it evaluates how the work is influenced by the time in which the author wrote it. It also examines the social sphere in which the author moved the psychological background of the writer, and the books and theories that may have influenced him or her.

3.2 Major Theories of New Historicism

New Historicism borrows the “Power Theory” from the famous Post-Structuralist Michel Foucault to analyze in depth the detailed relations between history and text. In Foucault’ s theory, power refers the relations of domination and resistance which saturate our social, political and cultural relations, but it can also refer to the ways in which power is a productive, even pleasurable, part of our existence. It is everywhere, not because it embraces everything, but because it comes from everywhere (Foucault, 1981: 93). Obviously, “power” here has a much broader application than the words like “politics” and “economy”, which are used by the traditional historicism. “Power also needs to have subversion, otherwise it would be without the opportunity to justify itself, and to make itself visible as power” (Brannigan, 1998: 8). As a result, certain text could be subversive to some extent, in the interest of power. Foucault" s principal interest is how power diffuses itself in systems of authority and how it affects of truth produced within discourses which in themselves are neither true nor false.

In New Historicists’ opinion, literary texts are placed in the specific historical context and related to other non-literary texts which constructed within other specific historical context. Similarly, history is regarded as a text of interrelated contexts. This is just the famous New Historicist dictum of “historicity of text and textuality of history”, which based on the New Historicist Louis Montrose’ s theory. In Louis Montrose’ s most famous dictum, the new orientation to history in literary studies may be characterized as a dynamic dialogue between literature and history and it has a reciprocal concern with “the historicity of texts and the textuality of history” (Montrose, 1989: 124). History can influence text and in the meanwhile, it can also be influenced by text and is constituted by various texts.

Another important theory New Historicism has established is about the “writer”. Stephen Greenblatt argues that the writer as a subject is always doing “self-fashioning” within the historical context. We can understand the key point of this “Writer Theory” from the meaning of the word “subject”. “Subject” can refer to a person or a thing which can perform action according to its own will. It can also be used as an adjective, having the meaning of “to be submissive and governed by others”. So to be a “subject”, one has to be both “dynamic” and “submissive”. Since the “writer” has become a both dynamic and submissive “subject”, then what role does the writer play in creating a specific work of art? “Negotiator” who has to negotiate with the historical context to create a “currency” (text) that is valid for a profitable “exchange”. Thus “the work of art is the product of a negotiation between a creator or a class of creators, equipped with a complex, communally shared repertoire of conventions and the institutions and practices of society” (Montrose, 1989: 12).

4. Macbeth — the Product of Shakespeare’ s Negotiation with the Historical Context

From the New Historicists’ point of view which has been discussed in the previous chapter, work of art can be seen as a product of negotiation between its creator and the historical context. Applying this theory to the study of Macbeth, we can argue that when Shakespeare was creating the play Macbeth, he was in fact, negotiating with the historical context. On one hand, he was a dynamic initiator of action who had his own sharply defined identity and interests; on the other hand, he was a submissive subject under the control of the historical context who had to yield his own initiative to the common and acceptable institutions of the society.

4.1 The Dynamic Role Shakespeare Played in Creating Macbeth

We can summarize the dynamic role Shakespeare played with his depiction of the witches and Lady Macbeth in this play. Greenblatt has made a name for himself both as a preeminent Shakespeare scholar and as one of the founders of the “New Historicist” approach to literary criticism. Central to his approach is the notion that not only does history affect literature, but literature itself informs history, Shakespeare applied his own faiths and emotions to Macbeth to show the evil of humanity and the darkness of society.

In Macbeth, thunder and lightning appeared in the process of the appearance of the witches, who lost their temper, and behind each followed one available demon to order about. These images were horrible, and also showed that the witches were engaged in the dark, bloody and shady deal. The three witches told Macbeth three predictions that he would become thane of Glamis, thane of Cawdor, and then the monarch in the future. With the implementation of the first two of the prophecies, Macbeth completely believed in the witches. After he killed Duncan and Banquo secretly, Macbeth was eager to know how to strengthen the power he had snatched. Therefore, he found the witches spontaneously, trying to get the affirmation and assurance of fate, so as to ensure his position. In this process, the witches were very familiar with Macbeth’ s eventual failure and his tragic end. However, they still encouraged Macbeth to be stern and cruel, and also said that Macbeth would never be defeated. These predictions inciting Macbeth as expected, he gradually moved toward guilty abyss. So, in this play, the witches not only symbolize the perversion, the darkness and the evil ones, but also can lure people into the dark world of sin. In addition, the witches also embody the social evil forces of that time. The witches symbolize barbarism and ignorance of the middle ages, annotating that bloody era. Their vulgarity and savage represents the dark ages. Moreover, this also stands for the emerging bourgeoisie schemer, representing the characteristics of Machiavellian careerist.

Lady Macbeth was seen as another incentive of Macbeth’ s evil behavior and the destroy of his human nature. In order to achieve her purpose, Lady Macbeth could use unscrupulous divisive tactics. In fact, although Macbeth had imperial ambitions, he had no evil thoughts. But at this time, Lady Macbeth became an important role and had an influence on her husband. When Macbeth hesitated for the murder, she said that : “We fail? But screw your courage to the sticking place, and we will not fail. When Duncan is asleep his two chamberlains will I with wine and wassail so convince, that memory, the warder of the brain, shall be a fume, and the receipt of reason a limbec only: when in swinish sleep their drenched natures lie as in a death, what cannot you and I perform upon the unguarded Duncan? What not put upon his spongy officers, who shall bear the guilty of our great quell” (Shakespeare, 1993: 17). She was like a rattlesnake, and with a hissing sound, she deluded Macbeth and let him lose self control of his personality. Finally, Macbeth’ s inner desires were all inspired. In his body fulled of the forceful desires just like the rolling boiling water, and his reason had already been hypnotized by Lady Macbeth’ s instigation. We can say that Macbeth is a hero, but in terms of plot, he becomes a puppet of Lady Macbeth. Indeed, once the female are attracted deeply by power or any other things and infatuated with them to the degree that they can’t extricate themselves, then they will burst out a kind of brutality further than ruthlessness and malevolence. What kind of power distorts and poisons Lady Macbeth’ s soul? In ancient Greek tragedies, people often attribute their fate, the development of cities and results of wars to supernatural factors. With the progress of science, people no longer blindly worship the gods, but from their own to change their fate. Perhaps this is the understanding of Shakespeare, so he created this cruel female figure who suffered mental torture and eventually went to death to tell us that in tragedies, both goodness and evil will be ruined, and this is just the feature of tragedy of the tines.

4.2 The Submissive Role Shakespeare Played in Creating Macbeth

When discussing how a writer creates a great work of art, Stephen Greenblatt argues, “There can be no autonomous artifacts and there can be no expression without an origin and an object” (Greenblatt, 1988: 12). Greenblatt makes it clear that the writer’s genius and initiative can’t be the sole origin of great art. Instead, almost all works of art have some intertextuality with other great art. That is to say, when the writer is creating a new work, he is inevitably being influence much by some existing classical works which have been well received, and which embody the acceptable and common rules of the historical context. This is also the case of Shakespeare. His Macbeth is strongly influenced by some classical works, especially the Revelation in the Bible.

The final duel between Macbeth and Macduff is similar to the Revelation in the Bible. The Revelation describes the battle between the Church of Jesus Christ and that of the Roman Emperor, between Good and Evil and between God and the Devil made with a huge and heavy cost. In the Revelation, its main content is about a warning of future including the doomsday projections and the barrage of catastrophe. In Macbeth，there is also a disaster of killing to let us think of the disaster in the Revelation. It suggests the destruction of humanity.

In the James era, which Shakespeare fortunately lived in, feudalism began to collapse and humanism started prevailing. Shakespeare bravely criticized the darkness of feudalism and its ruin to human nature by creating the tragedy of Macbeth in order to show his strong desire for establishing new type of social and ethical relationships. In a word, the intertextuality of Macbeth with the Revelation in the Bible shows that the play is not only the product of Shakespeare’s individual intellect, but also the product of Shakespeare’s adopting the historical context.

5. Macbeth — A Realistic Representation of the Society in the James Era

In chapter 1, the author has discussed about the New Historicist dictum of “historicity of text and textuality of history”. In Louis A. Montrose’ s words, the “historicity of text” suggests the cultural specificity, the social embedment, of all modes of writing (Montrose, 1989: 20). That is to say, no literary works could escape the influence of the historical context in which it was produced, whereas historical context is certain to be reflected in the literary works. As an influential play appeared in a rather special background—the James era, Macbeth is influenced by this historical context and becomes a realistic representation of Britain at that specific time.

5.1 A Brief Account of the Religious and Social Background of the James Era

The time Shakespeare finished his new drama Macbeth, Queen Elizabeth I of England passed away and King James of Scotland inherited the throne. In this condition, King James strongly supported Shakespeare’ s troupe. Trying to please king, Shakespeare said a prophesy through the mouth of a witch in this drama: the heir of Banquo would forever keep this imperial crown. James was exactly right the eighth generation of Banquo.

In Shakespeare’ s times, people believed in unnatural phenomenon and witchcraft. Things like that were quite popular in England. People thought witches can control mysterious power by illusion only with the help of some behavior, ceremony or curses. Through bringing great impact on nature or people’s life, witches who control this power can get what they want. King James also held positive attitude towards witchcraft. With the support from ruling class, works about witchcraft appeared layer upon layer without end. The masses showed great interests on this type of literature work. Therefore, dramas in this period more or less involved supernatural factor, including Shakespeare who use it in his works naturally.

Besides, the doom of feudal system was approaching, the statues of new capitalist class begun rising. Obscurantism, represented by religious theology and deriving from middle ages, was going to its end. Capitalist individualism-center world value was wildly promoted. Individualism gradually took main part of social cultural thoughts. In his works, Shakespeare bravely criticized the darkness of feudal system and its bound of humanity, expressing the strongly desire of new capitalist class towards a new kind of social relationship and ethical thoughts, which greatly helped the wildly promotion of humanism in England and Europe.

5.2 Characters in Macbeth: Typical Figures of the James Era

Every historical context would give birth to some typical figures, some of whose personalities are influenced, even caused by the historical context. So would the James era. There existed various kinds of people in this historical context, some of whom hold many distinctive characteristic caused by this specific context. Two kinds of these typical figures are reflected in Macbeth by the characters in the play. And the portrayal of these characters makes the play a more realistic reading of the James era.

5.2.1 The role of Macbeth in the text

The times in this book is times that needs giants and have giants . It’s an evil age that bourgeois adventurers, ambitious schemer were active and human hearts are not what they were in the older days. The slogan that based on bourgeois hominism and individualism was calling on liberation of personality and values of human enlightened the benighted. It encouraged people to do beneficial activity and struggle against feudalism and church. On the other hand, some adventurers, ambitious schemers used it as their basis of plundering treasure, chasing for personal enjoyment, having no scruple of others’ pain and taking the wrong turning into extreme individualism. For example, in England, since the end of 16th century, social contradictions came to the surface. Except for the disasters caused by political, economic and class struggle, there was another kind of bad social moral climate which was both aeriform and visible. The mind of people were full of evil desire, they forgot the principle of human being and promote extreme individualism and egoism. Shakespeare described this awful social phenomenon through Macbeth.

From “So foul and fair a day I have not seen” (Shakespeare, 1993: 5) we can know that there are contradiction and restlessness in Macbeth’ s nature. These lead to the degenerate of Macbeth. Having witch’ s prediction and his wife’s instigation or not, Macbeth’ s ambition would brush all the moral barriers aside and reveal to the public. Without the pushing from outside, Macbeth is doomed kill his king. So, we think the fear and abnormal of Macbeth are not because of regret but the guilty in his mind. This heavy guilty is keeping torturing him. He keeps his evil for the evil he made before, so he has to use more evil to remain things he got by evil, which makes him lost much farther, become more crazy and, finally, turn into a tyrant. This work reveals the deep understanding of human nature of Shakespeare: the freedom of human being is limited, the releasing and satisfying of desire cannot lead them to a nature and equal world.

5.2.2 The role of Banquo in the text

In Shakespeare’ s famous tragedy Macbeth, Banquo, who was once fighting shoulder by shoulder with Macbeth and achieved notable merits, contrasts sharply with Macbeth and plays an essential artistic role in this work. However, when people read this book, they seldom pay much attention to this role, some of them may even think that Banquo is a person who is so pure that never shake his heart when facing the witch’ s predictions and always keep loyalty to his king. Actually, Banquo is not a pure and loyal role in the work. He plays a undignified role in Macbeth’ s evil behavior, which can be proved by his interior impression that exposed by his words and deeds.

Firstly, when witch says prediction of blessing to Macbeth, Banquo observes expression changes of Macbeth while eager to ask his own future, which proves even he still keep rational judgment, he was excited for the prediction and almost believe it. Secondly, just like Macbeth, Banquo desires witch can give him more rather than vanishing so early. Banquo keeps those blessing deep in mind like Macbeth does. Thirdly, he keeps the fact that he met witch as a secret. This behavior is an evidence of “the evil connection between he and Macbeth ” (Ge Lin, 1987: 302). At last, according to the artistic function of mysterious power in Shakespeare’ s work, crossing against witch is visual picture of role’s mental changes in the book. Therefore, Banquo has the same mental action with Macbeth. He is a undignified role whose ambition just sprouts although intellect still remains.

6. The Historical Power of Macbeth

“Textuality of History” is a part of the New Historicist dictum which sees history to be constructed as a text of interrelated contexts. It makes the study of literature in relation to history a matter of “addressing the role that discourse, including literature, plays in negotiating and making manifest the power relations and structure of a culture” (Brannigan, 1998: 81). That is to say, all literary works can have powerful effect on the construction of historical context. It can help the ruling class to consolidate its authority and the ruled class to subvert the authority. As one of the most influential plays of the James era, Macbeth has its specific effect on the construction of the historical context of the James era and has become an inseparable part of this historical context.

6.1 Dramatic Level

The most important influence of Macbeth on the historical context may be that it is the milestone of Shakespeare’ s four great tragedies, and at the same time, it is Shakespeare’ s new interpretation to the tragedy.

In the creation of tragedies, Shakespeare has introduced a new era. Firstly, let’s see it from the tragic plot. According to the theory of the tragedy creation, most of the literature and art theorists still thought that tragedy and comedy should have strict boundaries. However, during the renaissance, this theory has changed. The combination of tragedy and comedy has become an inevitable trend because this diversity can cause great happiness. Therefore, Shakespeare tried to apply comedy into tragedy.

Secondly, about the tragic characters, in the renaissance, though the definition of tragedy hadn’t a lot of changes, the central concern of theorists has turned to characters instead of events or plots. The relation of tragic plots and characters was different from ancient Greek tragedy theories. Aristotle’ s plot determinism is no longer a determinant factor for tragic action but is characters. That we can see the characters are the center of attention. In Shakespeare’ s tragedies, we can deeply experience the strong characters. From the image-building, Shakespeare’ s tragedies depict different characters as a state of contradiction to show the profound tragedy. From the writing style, Shakespeare doesn’t treat it as the same form. He skillfully master unify of sadness and joy, and the harmony of reality and fiction. In a word, the major writing characteristics of Shakespeare’ s four great tragedies reflect visually the law of unify of opposites. From the plot, we can see several features of Shakespeare’ s tragedies, which are distinct humanistic ideas, various clues and unify of necessity and contingency. The distinct style gives audiences a deep impression and shocks them.

Thirdly, from the tragic topics, it has several changes. In Shakespeare’ s tragedies, the theme of resistance and love appeared. In the ancient Greek tragedy, though the theme of resistance existed, it is just individual behavior. However, in Shakespeare’ s tragedies, there was not only the individual behavior but also the social action. And the theme of resistance obviously strengthened.

It’s known that the success of Macbeth can be partly attributed to its freshness and its difference from the previous tragedies. Like Shakespeare, none of these playwrights faithfully followed patterns of the classics or the other tragedies. Marx regarded Shakespeare as "the greatest genius in drama of mankind".

6.2 Cultural Level

Macbeth also had a profound effect on English culture. It is one of the most quoted works in the English language, and is often included on lists of the world"s greatest literature. As such, it reverberates through the writing of later centuries. Shakespeare’ s Macbeth is the greatest representation of art from England of James era. It encompassed the economic, social, and educational aspects of life. No other art form, including painting, could provide so much information about life in England of that time. Not only can we see and observe what goes on, but we can view the ideas, language, and thoughts as well through words and actions. Long time ago, Macbeth was made into a film that we can see it was so popular among people around the world and encourage people to resist inner evil.

Shakespeare’ s Macbeth greatly influenced the entire English language. Prior to and during Shakespeare" s time, the grammar and rules of English were not standardized. But once Shakespeare" s plays became popular in the late seventeenth and eighteenth century, they helped contribute to the standardization of the English language, with many Shakespearean words and phrases becoming embedded in the English language, particularly through projects such as Samuel Johnson’ s A Dictionary of the English Language which quoted Shakespeare more than any other writer. He expanded the scope of English literature by introducing new words and phrases, experimenting with blank verse, and also introducing new poetic and grammatical structures.

7. Conclusion

The thesis holds the analysis of the relationship between Macbeth and its historical context. With close-reading of the text, careful study of the historical background in the James era from the perspectives of the New Historicism, the author’ s discussions can be summarized in four aspects: a brief introduction to New Historicism and its major theories, Shakespeare’ s negotiation with the historical context while creating Macbeth, the influence of the historical context on the text and the great effect of the text on the historical context.

Shakespeare, as a dynamic initiator of action, he put his own interest and emotional faith into the creation of this tragedy. However, being under the control of the historical context, Shakespeare also had yielded his own initiative to the common and established institutions of the society, which is revealed in the intertextuality with its Revelation in the Bible. As a result, Macbeth becomes a product of Shakespeare’ s negotiation with the historical context. The influence of the historical context on Macbeth can be found everywhere in the text, from the reference to some religious and social events, to the characters which represent the typical figures of the James era. The historical power of Macbeth lies mainly at two levels: the dramatic level and the cultural level. It contributes to a new interpretation on tragedy and it also has a profound effect on English culture.

Though all the author’ s limited knowledge and vision in solving the intricate literary problems, the author thinks her efforts have at least contributed to one aspect of meaningful research for herself and people interested in the same field: the new historicist reading of Macbeth. The further study on Macbeth such as Macbeth’ s mental activities, Macbeth’ s characteristics and so on will be researched with a higher and deeper level by other companions in the future.

Works Cited

[1] Bradbrook. M. C. Aspects of Macbeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974.

[2] Brannigan, John. New Historicism and Cultural Materialism. New York: St. Martin’ s Press, 1998.

[3] Curry, Walter Clyde. Shakespeare’ s Philosophical Patterns. Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1937.

[4] Foucault, Michel. History of Sexuality (Volume 1). London: Penguin Press, 1981.

[5] Greenblatt, Stephen. “Shakespearean Negotiations.” The Circulation of Social Energy in Renaissance England. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988.

[6] Heilman, Robert B. Aspects of Macbeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974.

[7] Irving, Ribner. Shakespeare for Students. Detroit: Gale Research, 1992.

[8] Montrose, Louis. The New Historicism. New York: Routledge Press, 1989.

[9] Shakespeare, Willian. Macbeth. New York: Dover Publications, 1993.

[10] 葛林. 《二十世纪文学评论（上）》. 上海: 上海译文出版社, 1987.

[11] 杨爱唐. 《论麦克白夫人人物形象的塑造》. 湖北大学学报, 4 (1996): 4.

[12] 郑传寅. 《欧洲戏剧文学史》. 武汉: 长江文艺出版社, 2002.

[13] 朱刚. 《二十世纪西方文艺批评理论》. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2001.

剩余内容已隐藏，请支付后下载全文，论文总字数：34595字