论文总字数：28778字

摘 要

中介语石化是二语习得中普遍存在的现象。本文依据二语习得理论，从学习者年龄、学习者情感问题、学习策略、交际策略以及语言迁移等方面，分析了英语教学过程中的中介语石化成因。本文认为在英语教学中应加强学生目的语文化学习，合理运用学习策略，克服情感方面的障碍，努力消除语言测试中的弊端，广泛运用言语和非言语交际手段，以便提高学习者英语语言交际能力，减少中介语石化现象产生。

关键词：中介语；石化；英语教学；语言能力

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 1

3.Interlanguage and Its Features 2

4.Fossilization and Its Classification 3

4.1 Individual Fossilization and Group Fossilization 4

4.2 Temporary Fossilization and Permanent Fossilization 4

5. Causes of Fossilization 5

5.1 Internal Factors 5

5.2 External Factors 7

6. Implications for English teaching 9

6.1 Improving the Self-restraint of the Target Language Culture 9

6.2 Improving Learning Strategies 10

6.3 Overcoming Emotional Barriers 10

6.4 Effective Ways to Eliminate the Disadvantages in Language Testing 10

6.5 Using Various Means in Nonverbal Communication 11

7. Conclusion 11

Works Cited 13

1. Introduction

With the development of second language acquisition research deeply, some research topics have attached the great importance by more and more linguists, such as the interlanguage and fossilization. Interlanguage is a common phenomenon in the field of second language acquisition. It refers to the systematic knowledge of language which is independent of the native language and the target language system which the language learner is trying to learn. It takes the mother tongue as the starting point, and gradually approaches to the target language and it is a dynamic language system. However, there exits a universal phenomenon in Second Language Learning that most L2 learners fail to reach target language competence. That is, they stop learning when their internalized rule system contains rules different from those of the target language. Therefore, to a large extent, this phenomenon restrains the further improvement of learner’s proficiency in the target language. This is referred to as “Fossilization” by Selinker.

Due to the rapid development of the research of SLA, fossilization has been attached great importance in linguistics. Over the past 20 years or so, many researchers and linguists have made various careful studies on the phenomenon of fossilization and they have achieved a lot of insights in the studies and contributed greatly to foreign language teaching and learning. In this article, on the one hand, I’ll do a review of interlanguage and fossilization research separately. On the other hand, I’ll pay more attention to do a research about the causes of fossilization. Last but not least, based on the theory and factors, the thesis will focus on the teaching methods in Chinese English Teaching so that the students can learn the foreign language well.

2. Literature Review

As an important aspect of second language acquisition research, the study of fossilization has made a great achievement. Various controversy reactions to the doubts about fossilization have been aroused in the past decades. Selinker is a representative figure of the interlanguage theories. The word“interlanguage”was first coined by Selinker (1969: 67-92).Moreover, from a pedagogical perspective, Selinker (1972: 209-237) discusses the causes of fossilization and he points out that interlanguage fossilization is the product of five central processes involved in second-language learning. Corder (1967: 161-169) argues that making errors is a strategy of learners. He also stresses that the formation of learner’s language ability is a dynamic and ever-changing process. Schumann’s contribution is quite noticeable. Schumann (1978: 27-50) comes up with the acculturation model, and tries to explain the dynamic mechanism of the second language acquisition in the light of the social environmental and personal element. In addition, Ellis (1994) proposes the variable competence model on the basis of the early interlanguage theories. He insists that learners construct a serious of abstract linguistic rules as the foundation for producing or approaching the second language. Vigil and Oller (1976: 281-295) share the similar opinion with Ellis.

In China, Zhang Xuemei (2000) comes up with the causes of fossilization from a cognitive angle with the introduction of Keith Johnson’s theory and Peter Tomlinson’s. What is worth mentioning, Dai Weidong (1999) reveals the basic development model of Chinese student’ interlanguage fossilization. He also makes claims for English teachers with regard to the methods of decreasing the interlanguage fossilization .Based on Selinker’s five central processes, Niuqiang (2000) probes into the causes of fossilization. He states that the affective factors of learners, first language transfer, teachers and teaching material should be factors affecting fossilization.

3. Interlanguage and Its Features

Interlanguage is neither different from the mother tongue of the second language learner, nor from the target language in the process of learning. It is indicated in all the different aspects, such as phonetics, grammar, vocabulary, expression and habits. However, it is flexible and gradually forms to the target language as the second language learner improves their knowledge and communication skills.

As the independent language system between native language and target language, interlanguage possesses several distinct features and rules.

First, the L2 learner’s interlanguage system is permeable, in the sense that rules that constitute the learner’s knowledge at any stage are not fixed, but open to amendment. In many respects it’s a general feature of natural languages, which evolve over time in ways not dissimilar to the developments that take place in interlanguage.(Rod Ellis,1985)

Second, interlanguage is systematic. Despite the variability of interlanguage, it is possible to detect the rule-based nature of the learner’s use of the L2.It is viewed as a linguistic system comprising abstract linguistic rules that promote comprehension and production constructed by the learners.

Third, Interlanguage is dynamic and it is a system of flexibility and variation. After entering the interlanguage system, new language rules have a strong ability to spread, so the system is under the constant restruction. Compared with some other forms of language growth, interlanguage are typically changing rather fast in developmental terms as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses about L2.

Last but not least, interlanguage may be fossilized. Fossilization is the relatively stable embodiment of interlanguage. The most striking characteristic of interlanguage lies in that it is fossilizable, which tends to happen in various situations.

4. Fossilization and Its Classification

The original definition by Selinker in 1972 is the most widely accepted one, which goes like the following:“Fossilization linguistic phenomena are linguistic items，rules and subsystems which speakers of a particular native language will tend to keep in their interlanguage relative to a particular target language，no matter what the age of the learner or the amount of explanation and instruction he receives in the target language” .In a word, fossilization is a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.

4.1 Individual Fossilization and Group Fossilization

As its name implies, individual fossilization refers to different fossilized items or different degrees of fossilized language competence that occur in different individuals. It is reflected in two aspects. The first is error appearance, which refers to the repeated appearance of errors that have been corrected many times but still remain in interlanguage. The second is language competence fossilization, which refers to the fossilization of the pronunciation, structure and vocabulary of the interlanguage. Error fossilization can be easily found in the beginners or learners with low proficiency. On the contrary, language competence fossilization is always found in the L2 learners who have been learning the TL for a long period of time or the learners who are very fluent speakers of L2.

Group fossilization comes into being when fossilization occurs to a whole language community instead of different individuals, or even to a larger society such as a nation. It may lead to a new dialect like Indian English and Singapore English. The result of the study on group fossilization always throws light on individual fossilization.

4.2 Temporary Fossilization and Permanent Fossilization

The former means that the fossilized items last a comparatively a short time, usually less than five years as Selinker puts it, and are possible for further development to target-like forms. Many errors by Chinese English learners, especially young school students, are temporarily fossilized. Permanent fossilization refers to that the learners errors in his interlanguage have remained for a pretty long period, usually more than five years according to Selinker’s time standard or even life time. Those errors seem to have already become fixed and cannot be corrected. Basically, Chinese foreign language learners" development of interlanguage follows such a pattern:

At the beginning of the foreign language learning, due to the accumulation of learners" language knowledge, their foreign language abilities continually improve, especially listening and speaking skills will be presented by leaps and bounds, thus appearing peak phenomenon (climax). Once after reaching the peak of language knowledge, the improvement of foreign language ability will be stable and may be in a state of stagnant. However, what we should be pay attention to is that for most foreign language learners, their interlanguage is only temporary petrochemical, also we can say that they are in an early sign of petrochemical— plateau. Because of various subjective and objective reasons, their foreign language knowledge and ability will be in a state of a temporary stability, no longer rising. But through observation and practice, we found that if learners have a chance to get a good foreign language training or contact with the natural environment in the target language, their foreign language level will improve obviously, entering another peak.

5. Causes of Fossilization

The causes of fossilization have been studied seriously over the past 20 years. And Ellis has summarized two major reasons: internal and external reasons.

5.1 Internal Factors

5.1.1 The Age of Learners

Lenneberg (1967) put forward the hypothesis of the critical period in language acquisition based on comparing the adult and children patients with aphasia and believed that the best period language acquisition is between ages 2 and 12.If they are over this period, the ability of language acquisition will be subjected to a certain degree of block because of the brain functional lateralization and loss of plasticity.

Scovel (1988) also hold the view that learners cannot master some certain language features after reaching a critical age (usually the puberty) due to the loss of brain plasticity. Research proves that the age of the foreign language learners can have a great influence on second language acquisition to a certain extent, which lead to a positive or negative effect in forming fossilization. Scientific experiments have established that there is a critical period in the growth of children, approximately, completing at the age of two. Then, language functions have been positioned against the left brain, so learning a language will be blocked. Michael (2006) also talked about hypothesis of the critical period. He argued that there is a critical period (about 15) in the acquisition of second language. It is easier to acquire the target language completely before this period. And beyond the critical period, it"s very difficult for foreign language learners to acquire the completely form of the target language, which forming fossilization. Although later research shows that the critical period is not as strict as Lenneberg’s points, but it is an indisputable fact that age is a factor influencing second language acquisition.

5.1.2 Affective Factors

Among various kinds of affective factors, the most important and positive factor is motivation. Some learners are holding a utilitarianism attitude toward English learning either because English is a hot major and easy to get a job or because they have to take part in examinations and get the certifications. Based on such motivations, learners will not that positive in English and do not make any more efforts after they reach the anticipated purposes. At this time, fossilization is easy to occur. Meanwhile, lack of interests is anther important factor of fossilization. And many learners lack interests because of bad foundational knowledge and too much learning barriers, they can not pay attention to English synthesized ability of themselves. Definitely, fossilization occurs.

5.1.3 Language Transfer

Different national cultural characteristics influence the English and Chinese language characteristics of learning and writing. Due to the huge differences between English and Chinese social culture, learners will maintain a certain distance with the target language in the social and psychological aspects, therefore, in the process of language processing, the operation of memory and the input is restrained. Under this circumstance, Learners can only rely on internal input which is also called the native language and their interlanguage to deal with the language. If we put this imperfect intermediary language as the foundation when learning for a long time, it will hamper learning.

5.2 External Factors

5.2.1 The Factor of Social Culture in Target Language

Language and culture are connected closely. To learn a second language, one must learn its culture first because language contains culture load. Cultural differences make a great difference to L2 learners. According to Accuturation Model, language transfer is determined by social and psychological distance of the target language culture. Therefore, whether the acquisition of SLA or not lies in acceptance of the target language culture. If L2 learners have a negative attitude towards the target language culture when learning the grammar or syntax, then, the level of language transfer and cultural self-restraint will be so low that they can’t internalize the language input and improve their existing language ability, which leads to fossilization.

5.2.2 Learning Strategies

The strategies of learning a second language vary from person to person. Selinker points out that learning strategies may also result in fossilization. For example, some learners memorize words mechanically rather than taking effective methods to understand and remember, so their efforts are in vain and they still have a small vocabulary. What’s more, some others overgeneralize the target language. For instance, they change all the plural forms of the nouns no matter whether they are material nouns or not. If these learning strategies can’t be corrected promptly, fossilization will be formed as the time goes.

5.2.3 Communication Strategies

A significant function of language is to help people to communicate with others. The majority of the learners would like to entrap into the wrong region when they acquire a second foreign language. For example, after some spoken training, they can communicate with the foreigners smoothly. Under this circumstance, they firmly believe that they needn’t learn any more if it has nothing to do with communication. It hinders their motivation in SLA learning to a great degree, which leads to fossilization. On the other hand, oral English is so brief and quick that the learners often use the simplified grammatical structures and avoid the complex grammatical rule for a long time. Therefore, fossilization will be caused in the long term.

5.2.4 Teaching Methods

Foreign language teachers play an important role in the process of second language acquisition. Teaching of language knowledge directly or indirectly affects the development of the learners. If some teachers don"t teach learners native language form, it will take root in the mind of the learner, easily forming fossilization.

Training transfer refers to the inappropriate teaching methods or error in the teaching material to make learners form the interlanguage mistakes. It is connected with teacher"s classroom training methods and the selection of teaching materials. It points out that the incorrect or inappropriate language form and input may have a negative effect on the learners, which is more obvious in the beginning of the study, and once the error is formed, it easily causes fossilization. For example, the mistake that Chinese students commonly use ‘he’ to refer to ‘she’ in oral English is associated with the examples teachers prefer to use in practice.

In addition, an important aspect in the process of second language acquisition is evaluation. Evaluation mainly tests through language examinations. If we attach great importance to the tests, it may result in all links of teaching and learning is to prepare for the test (Su Dingfang, 2004). This will virtually influence the breadth and depth of teaching and learning.

According to the results of a sample survey on the college entrance examination conducted by professor Su Dingfang, the majority of the students think that English college entrance examination can not fully reflect a person"s level of English. Thus, under the exam-oriented education system, learners study for different test, it hurts the foreign language learners" motivation and confidence, to a certain extent, causing that the foreign language learning cannot make a great progress and the fossilization.

To sum up, the generation of language fossilization involves internal and external factors. It is the interaction of these factors in second language acquisition, leading to the formation of the interlanguage fossilization.

6. Implications for English Teaching

Since Selinker in 1972 formally put forward the concept of fossilization, the works of discussing fossilization come out gradually, which aims to explore the methods to solve the problems of fossilization. But most of these studies are based on the second language, it has little meaning for the foreign language environment of English learning and teaching guiding in China. At the same time, more and more Chinese language education workers and researchers realized language fossilization is a universal problem in the SLA and attached great importance to it.

In order to acquire the second language more completely, more deeply, we should take positive and effective methods to prevent the generation of language fossilization.

6.1 Improving the Self-restraint of the Target Language Culture

To learn the language well, language acquisition and the target language culture knowledge should be reduced, so we should enhance the understanding of the cultural aspects, deepen the understanding of the differences between the target language and mother tongue, strengthen the sensitivity of cultural differences, and improve the cultivation of the culture of the target language. As a teacher, he should carry out some knowledge about the target language culture teaching appropriately, provide learners with background cultural knowledge completely, cultivate their ability of cross-cultural communication and the thinking of target language culture with an open mode to guide the learners to learn the target language culture. So in foreign language teaching, the teachers and students are supposed to cooperate with each other, which is beneficial to improve the quality of teaching and prevent language fossilization.

6.2 Improving Learning Strategies

In foreign language teaching, teachers should correctly guide the learner"s communicative and learning strategies. On the one hand, in view of communication strategy, the teacher should guide students with diverse expressions, creatively and flexibly using the target language and not to dwell on the present situation. On the other hand, in terms of the learning strategies, learners should try to use a variety of strategies, consciously avoiding using simplification and giving up learning strategies. At the same time, teachers should provide more effective input, pay attention to feedback, overcome the learners’ weaknesses and make up for the inadequacy of their learning strategies.

6.3 Overcoming Emotional Barriers

To help learners to learn a foreign language successfully, in the process of teaching, teachers should correctly guide the learners to overcome their own emotional disorders, arouse their learning interest, make them realize self-worth, enhance the confidence of learning, apply a variety of teaching methods to the teaching application, and keep the high enthusiasm of learning. On the other hand, the learners should have a positive attitude towards their knowledge and ability. Neither should they overestimate their own ability, nor underestimate their competency. Therefore, through the joint efforts of teachers in the process of language teaching and learning, the fossilization can be effectively prevented.

6.4 Effective Ways to Eliminate the Disadvantages in Language Testing

Language testing is an important step in the process of foreign language teaching. To overcome language fossilization, it is imperative to reform the foreign language tests. According to professor Shu Dingfang, the assessment of reforming the foreign language teaching should include two aspects, content and way. The main content of the reform is the process of the result to achieving the results. And the main way of reform is to change the test as a foreign language teaching status quo of the major or even the only way (Shu Dingfang, 2004). Various forms of test method can evaluate learners" comprehensive ability, which can avoid one aspect of the fossilization, and promote the foreign language teaching.

6.5 Using Various Means in Nonverbal Communication

The influence of nonverbal communication in foreign language teaching is profound. Nonverbal communication means, such as the use of facial expressions, gestures, language environment, can active the classroom atmosphere in the teaching of foreign language and improve the quality of teaching, to a certain extent, preventing the fossilization. Take the language environment as an example, we believe that the language environment plays a very important role in foreign language teaching. And the role of nonverbal communication in students" learning in the classroom is often more significant than the role of formal teaching itself. In foreign language teaching, therefore, the correct and reasonable use of language environment can be achieved to improve the relationship between teachers and students, improve the quality of teaching effect (Li Shukang amp;Li Ke, 2006). For another, the change of teachers" facial expressions can also affect learners. A foreign language teacher, without a smile on his face, can make learners feel resistant, which influences the learners in the long term and they cannot make a great progress, which easily forms the fossilization. Therefore, keeping a good facial expression can arouse the enthusiasm of learners in the unconscious way, avoiding the formation of language fossilization. At the same time, it is conducive to achieve the cooperation harmoniously between the teachers and students in foreign language teaching and a great teaching effect.

7. Conclusion

From what has been mentioned above, we can see that interlanguage is an inevitable natural phenomenon in foreign language learning. The majority of the existing research of interlanguage and fossilization is closely related to the foreign language teaching. This article attempts to discuss the interlanguage and fossilization research separately. According to the multiple factors in English teaching such as the age of learner, affective factors, strategies of second language learning, strategies of second language communication and language transfer, this paper puts forward some teaching measures to reduce it from all perspectives, for example, improving the self-restraint of the target language culture and learning strategies, overcoming emotional barriers and using various means in nonverbal communication. However, there are a lot of factors accounting for the fossilization and it is difficult to design and control experiments. Therefore, in order to better improve the quality of foreign language teaching and reduce the fossilized items, there are many places worthy of further research to benefit the learners acquire a second language.

Works Cited

[1] Ellis, R. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. London: Oxford University, 1994.

[2] Ellis, R. Then Study of Second Language Acquisition. London: Oxford University, 1995.

[3] Lenneberg, E. Biological Foundations of Language. New York: Wiley and Sons, 1967.

[4] Selinker, L. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 1972: (10):209-231.

[5] Selinker, L. Language Transfer. General Linguisitics,1969:(9):67-92.

[6] Scovel,T. A time to speak: A psycholinguistic inquiry into the critical period for human speech. New York, NY: Newbury House/Harperamp;Row, 1988.

[7] Michael H. Problems in Second Language Acquisition. New Jersey:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc,2006.

[8] Corder,S.P. The significance of learner’s errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics 5, 1967:161-169.

[9] Schumann, J. The acculturation model for second language acquisition. Second Language Acquisition and Foreign Language Teaching, 1978:27-50.

[10] Vigil,N.A and Oller,J.W. Rule fossilization: a tentative model. Language Learning, 1976:281-295.

[11] 张雪梅.《语言石化现象的认知研究》.外国语,第4期:18-23.

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