论文总字数：33503字

摘 要

由于受到某些因素的影响，在汉英翻译过程中普遍存在“中式英语”现象。中式英语严重影响了翻译的质量以及我国的对外交流。因此，十分有必要对中式英语问题进行研究。针对这一问题，本论文在前人研究的基础之上，先大致归纳了汉英翻译中中式英语的特点，然后分析了中式英语产生的原因，主要包括中西方文化差异，思维方式差异以及母语干扰等方面，并针对如何避免“中式英语”提出一些科学而可行的办法，包括提高语言能力，了解文化差异，增强百科知识，以及改进翻译教学策略等。本论文旨在使中国的英语学习者加深对中式英语的认识，以期在汉英翻译中尽量减少中式英语的使用，提高汉英翻译质量及跨文化交际水平。

关键词：中式英语；汉英翻译；特点；成因；措施

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature Review 1

3. Features of Chinglish in Chinese-English Translation 2

3.1 Phonological Level 2

3.2 Lexical Level 3

3.3 Syntactic Level 4

3.4 Discourse Level 4

4. Causes of Chinglish 5

4.1 Discrepancies in Chinese and Western Cultural Background 5

4.2 Differences in Chinese and Western Ways of Thinking 6

4.3 Mother Tongue Interference 8

5. Some Possible Solutions to Chinglish 9

5.1 Improving Linguistic Competence 9

5.2 Learning More about Western Culture 11

5.3 Enhancing Encyclopedic Knowledge 11

5.4 Improving Translation Teaching Strategies 12

6. Conclusion 13

Works Cited 14

1. Introduction

With the implementation of China"s reform and opening up policy and the development of the global political and economic integration, exchange and communication become increasingly frequent between China and other countries. Meanwhile, English has become a global language and the main language tool of China’s foreign exchange. Translation, therefore, is a necessary process of China’s foreign exchange. However, due to the influence of some factors, the phenomenon of “Chinglish” is prevalent in the process of Chinese-English translation. Chinglish does not comply with the rules or ways of expression of English and therefore cannot be accepted by native English speakers. It seriously affects the quality of Chinese-English translation and China"s foreign exchange. Therefore, it is of great significance to study Chinglish. This thesis aims to provide a guidance for Chinese learners of English, and to deepen their understanding of Chinglish, in order to minimize the use of Chinglish and improve the quality of Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication. The thesis is divided into six parts. Part 1 is a brief introduction to the thesis, consisting of the aim and significance of the research and the organization of the thesis. Part 2 is literature review, presenting some previous studies about Chinglish. Part 3 illustrates some characteristics of Chinglish in Chinese-English translation at the phonological, lexical, syntactic, and textual level. Part 4 analyzes the causes of Chinglish. Part 5 proposes some possible measures to avoid the use of Chinglish. Part 6 summarizes the whole thesis and points out some limitations of the thesis.

2. Literature Review

Many scholars and English teachers at home and abroad have noticed the existence of Chinglish for a long time. At abroad, the American author of The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, Joan Pinkham, pointed out in the book:“Chinglish, of course, is that misshapen, hybrid language that is neither English nor Chinese but might be described as ‘English with Chinese characteristics’.” (2000: 1) To support her analysis, she listed abundant and persuasive examples in the book. Famous British linguist and educator L.G. Alexander also presented his view on Chinglish: Chinglish is the version of English that reflects their (Chinese people’s) own culture… and if I, as a native speaker of English, were to learn Chinese, I would never think, speak and write as a Chinese do. I would always speak Engchin.” (1995: 12-18)

At home, Professor Deng Yanchang expressed his views on Chinglish:“Chinglish is speech or writing in English that shows the interference or influence of Chinese. Some sentences may be little or more than word for word translation of Chinese expressions. Chinglish may be grammatically correct, but the choice of words or phrases and the manner of expression do not conform to Standard English usage. Although understanding may not be a problem, Chinglish is unacceptable.” (1989: 15) Another scholar, Li Wenzhong, considered Chinglish as “a kind of misshaped English” (1993: 18-24). He maintained that Chinglish does not conform to the standard English expressions and results from Chinese learners of English imposing the Chinese grammatical rules and idiomatic expressions into English expressions. Misunderstanding in English, written by Cheng Lini, aims to teach readers suitable English expressions through correcting some typical mistakes in Chinglish. There are abundant and idiomatic English expressions in this book. From Chinglish to English written by He Mu combines 40 English passages. Through analyzing the English language and grammar points the author presented readers some valuable ways to learn and use English. As early as in 1980, Professor Ge Chuangui presented the term “China English” in his article Discussion on Chinese-English Translation. Besides, he suggested that much attention should be drawn to distinguish China English from Chinglish. Ge pointed out China English could be comprehended after it has been explained while Chinglish embodies Chinese users’ low proficiency in English and cannot be understood unless using another way of expression.

3. Features of Chinglish in Chinese-English Translation

3.1 Phonological Level

Because of using improper pronunciation organs and ways, Chinglish users cannot make them understood by native English speakers. When Chinese English learners do not master how to pronounce some phonemes in English, they tend to substitute them by similar but different pronunciation by rules of the Chinese sound system. Some Chinese English learners would pronounce “three” as “tree”, because there is no phoneme /θ/ in Chinese. To produce the sound /θ/, Chinese learners tend to use the sound /t/ in Chinese language system to replace it. As for certain consonants, Chinese people tend to combine the consonants with vowels whereas native English speakers will not do so. In English, there are the plosive consonants/p, b, t, d, k, g/, but in Chinese we articulate such consonants as p-o, b-o , t-e , d-e, k-e, g-e. Due to the influence of mother tongue pronunciation, many Chinese are inclined to produce an extra vowel sound at the end of the final plosive when they articulate English words. For example, their pronunciation of words “work” and “beg” may be represented phonetically as /w:k/ and /beg/.

3.2 Lexical Level

Features of Chinglish at the lexical level include the use of unnecessary words, wrong collocations, misuse of words, and improper word order. Here are some examples.

In the phrase “mutual cooperation”, “mutual” is unnecessary and should be deleted because “cooperation” implies being carried out by two or more than two parties. In the sentence “Previously we used to overemphasize the need for class struggle.”, the adverb “previously” is unnecessary and should be deleted, because the verb phrase “used to” means “in the habit previously”. As for wrong collocations, Chinese English learners use such wrong collocations as “deep sleep”, “receive the telephone”, and “crowded traffic” instead of idiomatic expressions “sound sleep”, “answer the telephone”, and “heavy traffic”. In the sentence “The discovery of steaming machine brought about the Industrial Era.”, the word “discovery” is misused, because “to discover” means “to find out something that has existed in the world” while “to invent” means to “to create something that did not exist in the world before”, so “discovery” should be substituted by “invention”. As to improper word order, take the following sentence as an example: The meeting will be held at about 9 a.m. in Classroom 312. The word order of adverbial adjuncts in Chinese is different from that in English. In Chinese, the adverbial adjunct for time is before the adverbial adjunct for location, while in English, the order is opposite. Therefore, it is suitable to change the sentence into: The meeting will be held in Classroom 312 at about 9 a.m.

3.3 Syntactic Level

Features of Chinglish at the syntactic level mainly include Chinglish subject, dangling modifiers, improper use of pronouns and antecedents, and the misplacement of phrases and clauses. Some examples are as follows.

1. To handle the problem with calmness and patience would be wise.

In English, it is acceptable to put the subject at the beginning of the sentence. However, the subject of this sentence is too long, so it is more suitable to change this sentence into: It would be wise to handle the problem with calmness and patience.

1. To oil the car, the wheels should be removed.

As an adverbial clause, its logical subject should be the same as the subject of the main clause. “The wheels” cannot function as the subject of the infinitive structure, so the acceptable expression should be: To oil the car, we have to remove the wheels.

1. If each enterprise goes it alone, they can never improve the quality of their products.

In this sentence, “each enterprise” is singular in form, as shown by the singular verb “goes”. However, the following pronouns “they” and “their” are plural. The correct expression of the sentence should be: If each enterprise goes it alone, it will never be able to improve the quality of its products.

1. We should review our experience and make adjustments in light of the actual conditions when we find problems.

In this sentence, the subordinate clause of time is intended to modify “make adjustments”, however, it is attached to the preceding “actual conditions”. The more acceptable expression is: We should review our experience and, when we find problems, make adjustments in light of the actual conditions.

3.4 Discourse Level

Features of Chinglish at the discourse level include lack of connectives and misuse of connectives. Take the following discourse as an example: A student acquires knowledge mainly from the class. When he graduates from school he can do nothing. Everything is different from what teachers told him. He may be disappointed. He may be frustrated. He may be afraid to face the real world. Our universities have turned out people of no use. It is a typical Chinglish discourse without any connectives. Considering the coherence of the discourse, it should be changed like this: A student acquires knowledge mainly from the class. As a result, when he graduates from school he can do nothing. For everything is different from what teachers told him. He may be disappointed and frustrated. In the end, he may be afraid to face the real world. Our universities have turned out people of no use. As to the misuse of connectives, let us see another example: Efforts will be made to introduce pension, medical insurance, and housing systems, and the best way to get laid-off workers out of poverty is to help them find jobs, Li stressed. The second clause stands in opposition to the first clause in semantic relation, so the conjunction “and” is misused. The sentence should be revised like this to make that relation clear: Efforts will be made to introduce pensions, medical insurance, and housing system, but the best way to get laid-off workers out of poverty is to help them find jobs, Li stressed.

4. Causes of Chinglish

4.1 Discrepancies in Chinese and Western Cultural Background

Language is closely related to culture. On one hand, language is a part of culture and plays an important role in culture. No language, no culture. Some social scientists consider it the keystone of culture. On the other hand, language is influenced and shaped by culture; it reflects culture. It is quite clear that Chinese culture and Western culture have been two independently developed cultures in the past thousands of years. They have both forged their own characteristics. In other words, there are discrepancies in Chinese and Western cultures. Ignorance of Chinese and Western cultural differences can lead to Chinglish.

In English, many words originate from the Bible, Greek myths, or literary works, such as Odyssey, Quixotic, and Frankenstein and so on. Many Chinese may feel confused if they don’t know the cultural backgrounds about those words. In addition, because Britain is an island nation, where fishing and navigation are very flourishing, so many words and expressions in English are connected with water or fish. Whereas, in China, people live by agriculture, so many expressions in Chinese are related to agriculture. For example, when Chinese people want to translate“牛饮”into English, they usually say “drink like an ox”, whereas, the idiomatic English expression should be “drink like a fish”. Due to cultural differences, Chinese people and Western people often use different images to represent the same concept. For instance, Chinese people often associate monkey with being wise, so when they want to express the concept of wisdom, they usually say “as wise as a monkey”. Whereas, in the West, the eagle is the symbol of wisdom, so Westerners often say “as wise as an owl” instead to express the same concept.

As for daily communication, in China, the asking of personal questions about age, family, marriage, health and property is seen as showing interest and concern for others, however, in the West, it is considered as encroaching upon others’ privacy. In addition, modesty is a traditional virtue of the Chinese nation, while in the West, personal success is highly valued. So when in the face of praise or thanks, Westerners tend to readily accept it, while Chinese people tend to be more modest and reserved. When Chinese people are required to respond to “Thank you very much for your help.”, they tend to reply “Not at all.” or “It’s nothing.” but not “It’s my pleasure.” Besides, in Chinese eyes, greetings like “You must be tired after the long trip.”, “You should have a good rest.” and “Take good care of yourself.” etc. are revealing of the speaker’s care and kind consideration for the hearer. However, such words are often taken by Westerners as the speaker’s implication of the hearer’s weakness and poor health. On such an occasion, it is proper to say: “Did you have a pleasant trip?” or “How was the trip?”

4.2 Differences in Chinese and Western Ways of Thinking

Language is also closely related to thought. On the one hand, language, as a carrier of thinking, reflects the way of human thinking. On the other hand, thinking is the soul of language, leading and controlling the use of language. The appearance of Chinglish is partly resulting from the influence of different ways of thinking. The writer mainly discusses the different ways of thinking in the following four aspects:

(1) Difference in emphasis on individual or general

Under the influence of Confucian ideology, Chinese people seek the whole and harmony between man and nature and among people, that is to say, they are group oriented and usually put collective interests before individual ones. On the contrary, Christianity is based on the belief that man and nature are separated, so Westerners are highly individualized and fragmented. In another word, Western people emphasize on individual, while Chinese people pay more attention to general. Take names of human and places for example. The rules in English are the given name stands before the family name and the smaller unit stands before the bigger unit. For example, in the English name “Tom Smith”, “Tom” is the given name and “Smith” is the family name. However, in Chinese names, the family name is put before the given name. In the example of “杨小军”, “杨”is the family name and “小军” is the given name. As for the name of places, the English expression of “中国北京朝阳路29号” should be “No. 29, Chaoyang Road, Beijing, China”. If Chinese people do not use English in accordance with those thought patterns, they will certainly produce Chinglish.

(2) Difference in emphasis on subject or object

Chinese people follow the anthropocentric thought pattern. On the contrary, object of a matter, namely the matter itself, is usually the study target of Westerners. They emphasize the action and effect of the objective world on the subjective one. So in English, abstract concepts often appear in the position of the subject in sentences while Chinese learners of English tend to adopt personal nouns as the subject of sentences.

Here is an example: 我突然想到一个好主意。(A good idea suddenly occurred to me.) When Chinese people translate the sentence into English, they tend to say: I come up with a good idea suddenly. Another example is “太平门”. Its equivalent English expression is “Emergency Exit”. We can see that Chinese people show the feelings of hope and safety, while Westerners express the matter itself objectively.

(3) Difference in emphasis on directness and indirectness

Westerners are more direct when expressing their ideas, so they always express the major point at the beginning and then add other subordinate points. While Chinese people are inclined to express ideas indirectly. They tend to convey supporting points at first and then point out the major information. Take letters of request for example. In most English letters of request, the purpose for which the letter is written precedes the supporting information. In contrast，when a Chinese writes a letter of request，he tends to tell first the reasons for the request and then make the final request．

(4) Difference in emphasis on synthesis and analysis

Chinese people follow a synthetic thought pattern. Contradictory to that, Westerners adopt the analytic thought pattern. Therefore, Chinese people prefer to explain the reasons and backgrounds at the beginning and then synthesize those different ideas, facts, or experiences to form a single idea or an impression on things. Whereas Westerners are inclined to express their opinions and attitudes first, and then analyze the reasons or background information. Let us see two English translation of the following sentence:

春花含苞待放，绿叶缓缓舒展，溪水潺潺流淌，欢乐的春天涌动着无限的追求和希望，这一切难以用语言倾诉表达。

a: Flowers bud in spring, green leaves stretch slowly, streams are flowing, the joyful spring is full of endless pursue and hope, all of those cannot be expressed by words.

b: Spring has so much more than speech in its unfolding flowers and leaves, in the coursing of its streams and in its sweet restless seeking.

Sentence “a” is Chinglish because it is word-for-word translation without any change of word order, making the whole sentence long-winded and not coherent. Whereas, in sentence “b”, the last Chinese clause which expresses a general impression on spring is put at the beginning of the sentence and the preceding four clauses are translated as four phrases following the main clause, which makes the whole sentence more fluent.

This difference is similar to difference in emphasis on process or result. Westerners emphasize on the result, so they tend to put the result before the process. While Chinese people emphasize on the process, so they are inclined to put the process before the result.

From the above analysis, to sum up, Western way of thinking lays emphasis on individual, analysis, object, result and future, while Chinese way of thinking emphasizes general, synthesis, subject, process and past.

4.3 Mother Tongue Interference

From the linguistic point of view, English belongs to the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family while Chinese is a member of Sino-Tibetan family. So English language differs from Chinese language in such aspects as phonetics, lexicology, grammar, structures and so on. Language transfer of mother tongue is inevitable in the process of second language acquisition. Language transfer refers to second language learners applying knowledge about their native language to a second language. Language transfer is divided into positive transfer and negative transfer. Generally speaking, negative transfer of mother tongue is mother tongue interference. The appearance of Chinglish is in part caused by mother language interference. Compared with interlanguage, Chinglish is neither stable nor grammatically right. It is more suitable to say that Chinglish is the preceding stage of interlanguage and is the result of language fossilization. Many examples given in Part 3 reveal the mother tongue interference. For example, Chinese people often use words or expressions with similar or same meanings in communication, so they naturally transfer this way of expression into English. Take the following sentence as an example: We must practice economy and reduce unnecessary expenditures. As we all know, it is Chinglish, because the two phrases “practice economy” and “reduce unnecessary expenditures” in effect express the same meaning, so native English speakers will not say so. The proper English expression should be: “We must practice economy.”, or “We must reduce unnecessary expenditures.”. Besides, due to the influence of the word order in Chinese, Chinese learners of English often produce Chinglish by translating word for word from Chinese. Let us compare the following two English translation of the sentence: 我明天不去上学。

A: I tomorrow do not go to school.

B: I will not go to school tomorrow.

Obviously, A-version is Chinglish because it is a word for word translation from Chinese, which does not conform to the grammar of English.

5. Some Possible Solutions to Chinglish

5.1 Improving Linguistic Competence

Translation requires primarily a fairly good command of languages，which involves large vocabulary usage，precision and flexibility of expression．Sometimes, even though we know the differences between Chinese and English cultures and ways of thinking, linguistic incompetence leads to mistakes or errors in pronunciation, lexicon, sentence structures and discourse. Therefore, improving linguistic competence is of great significance in order to avoid Chinglish.

To improve linguistic competence, firstly, Chinese English learners are encouraged to read extensively. For most Chinese learners of English, it is almost impossible to live among the native speakers of English and their contact with English outside the English class is very limited. Due to such circumstances, reading widely is the best and practical way to acquire idiomatic English. The importance of constant exposure to various English books or articles written by native English users cannot be more emphasized. It is widely agreed that much second language vocabulary learning occurs incidentally while the learner is engaged in extensive reading. Extensive reading can not only enrich the power of expression, but also open one’s vision and supply with more ways to consider the world. Through extensive reading learners can learn native English users’ ways of expression and writing techniques and weaken the influence of mother tongue unconsciously. Appropriate English materials can be supplied by teachers according to learners’ interests or needs. The second way to improve learners’ linguistic competence is to recite. In order to avoid Chinglish，Chinese learners need to master large numbers of English language points and grammar rules. Therefore, recitation is very necessary for Chinese English learners. After years of recitation and practice, learners will naturally make less mistakes. In addition, it is believed that a large amount of memorized chunks of language can shorten the brain’s processing time and help learners produce grammatically right English. Thirdly, Chinese English learners are encouraged to use English-English Dictionary. It is apparent that Chinglish often results from word-for-word translation from Chinese. As we know, most Chinese learners of English prefer to use English-Chinese Dictionary or Chinese-English Dictionary, with which it is easier for them to find out the literally corresponding English words to express their thoughts. However, this practice can easily lead to Chinglish. If they are required to use English-English Dictionary, they will not be excessively dependent on the exchange of word meaning from Chinese to English in translation, because the English-English Dictionary provides a pure English environment. Using an English-English Dictionary can help learners accurately master the meaning and usage of English words and enhance their sense of language. In addition, by consulting an E-E dictionary, learners can increase the amount of English reading, and the process of reading the English explanations actually is the process of learning to think and understand in English.

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