论文总字数：55737字

摘 要

如今，英语已成为国际通用语言之一。以英美为首的英语国家在全世界大力推广英语，造就了英语今天的地位。如今殖民主义时代已经结束，英语语言和文化推广是为了维护前殖民国家的权利和影响力。英语语言推广和文化推广比前殖民手段更加隐秘，其本质是为前殖民国家的经济和政治利益服务的。英语的强势地位给欧洲非英语国家带来了巨大的冲击，有些国家的文化甚至面临灭绝的危险。如何进行语言政策的调整，保护母语及其所代表的民族文化来来挽救濒危语言，已成为当前欧洲非英语国家语言学界关注的热点。

本文介绍欧洲非英语国家保护母语的措施，如制定合适的语言政策、建立语言推广机构,以及举行丰富多样的文化活动等，旨在为我国进一步制定有效的母语保护政策提供参考。

关键词：语言霸权；反制措施；保护

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements i

Abstract ii

摘要 iii

Table of Contents iv

Chapter One Introduction 1

1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Significance of the Study 2

1.3 Organization of the Thesis 2

Chapter Two Literature Review 4

2.1 Language Hegemony 4

2.1.1 Definition of Language Hegemony 4

2.1.2 Development and Status Quo of Language Hegemony 5

2.2 Previous Studies on Measures against LH 6

2.2.1 Studies at Home 6

2.2.2 Studies Abroad 7

Chapter Three The Influence of Language Hegemony on European Non-English-speaking countries 9

3.1 Positive Influence 9

3.2 Negative Influence 9

3.2.1 Linguistic inequality 9

3.2.2 Academic inequity 11

3.2.3 Economic inequality 11

Chapter Four Countermeasures against LH 13

4.1 Countermeasures against LH by European Non-English-speaking Countries 13

4.1.1 Multi-language policy 13

4.1.2 Maintenance of Native Language at Home 16

4.1.3 Promotion of Native Language Abroad 19

Chapter Five Effects and Suggestions 21

5.1 Effects of the Corresponding Measures 22

5.2 Suggestions about Our Domestic Language Policy 23

5.2.1 Measures Taken 23

5.2.2 Suggestions on future language policy of China 24

Chapter Six Conclusion 28

6.1 Summary 28

6.2 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Study 28

References 30

Chapter One Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

The U.S.-led ‘English-only’ political movement characterized by establishing English as the only official language by legislation seeks to ban instruction and public discourse in languages other than English (Crawford, 1992; González amp; Melis, 2000, 2001).

At the end of 20th century, a new round of English-only movement launched by America began. It aims not only to establish English as the official language but also to restrict use of other languages. Influenced by American English-only movement, a few European countries are supportive of it. As a result of this trend, some countries, such as Norway and Netherlands owing to limited economic strength, weak international influence and limited use and impact of native language, have difficulty in defending their mother tongues against English hegemony.In this case, obviously, the popularization of English threatens the position of their native languages.

In addition, the influence of Chinese is weakening around the world. America-led Western countries, in order to erode Chinese culture, have been working to undermine the influence of Chinese characters worldwide. On the one hand, America employs a global English Hegemony strategy. On the other hand, America encourages people, especially in East amp;Southeast Asia, to stop using Chinese characters.

Fortunately, at present, Chinese scholars become aware of the threats of English hegemony. Thus, in order to maintain the purity of Chinese, scholars have proposed concrete measures such as enhacing people's awareness of protecting our mother tongue, ensuring continuity in native language education, popularizing Mandarin, emphasizing bilingual or multilingual education and so on.

In the meantime, studies on the effects of English hegemony on European non-English-speaking countries and their corresponding measures have profound implications for China in formulating appropriate language policy.

1.2 Significance of the Study

Currently, English, identified as an international language, enjoys a dominant position worldwide which is due to the promotion led by English-speaking countries. Now that colonialism is over, English language and culture promotion are applying more subtle means for maintaining their former colonial powers and influence.It serves their economic and political interests at the cost of the fall of the languages and cultures of European non-English-speaking countries. In a word, English hegemony is a threatening means of neo-colonialism.

Therefore, mother tongues of European Non-English-speaking countries are in a risky position. Fortunately, linguists of European non-English-speaking countries have realized the situation and started to fixate on how to protect their mother tongues and traditional cultures.

It’s assumed that fates of all languages are interconnected. If we ignore the invasion of English, we may share similar fates with those European countries whose languages and cultures are endangered.

In this thesis, measures against English hegemony taken by European non-English-speaking countries are introduced in order to provide references for the protection of Chinese language and culture.

1.3 Organization of the Thesis

The thesis consists of five chapters. Chapter One introduces the background, significance and organization of the study. Chapter Two covers the definition and development of Language Hegemony and relevant studies about measures against LH. Chapter Three elaborates on the positive and negative influence of LH on European Non-English-speaking countries. Chapter Four includes countermeasures against LH by European Non-English-speaking countries. And in the end, Chapter Five summaries the whole thesis and presents the limitations of the study.

Chapter Two Literature Review

2.1 Language Hegemony

2.1.1 Definition of Language Hegemony

Linguistic hegemony, first introduced by Bernard Spolsky, refers to the phenomenon that ‘the spread of English is producing a new sociolinguistic reality, by threatening to take over important functions from other major languages, and by furthering language shift’(Spolsky 2000:77) This concept is very much similar to ‘linguistic imperialism’ initiate by Robert Phillipson which means ‘the dominance of English is asserted and maintained by the establishment and continuous reconstruction of structural and cultural inequalities between English and other languages.’(Robert 1992) Here ‘structural’ refers broadly to material properties (for example, institutions, financial allocations) whereas ‘cultural’ refers to immaterial or ideological properties (for example, attitudes and pedagogical principles). Due to the similarity, these two concepts are used interchangeably throughout the thesis. English linguistic imperialism is one example of linguicism, which is defined as “ideologies, structures, and practices which are used to legitimate, effectuate and reproduce an unequal division of power and resources (both material and immaterial) between groups which are defined on the basis of language (Skutnabb 1988). English linguistic imperialism is seen as a sub-type of linguicism. In a word, linguistic imperialism is a form of linguicism in which one community or collectivity dominates another, as in colonialism, imperialism, and corporate globalization, and in which the language of the dominant power is privileged structurally in the allocation of resources and ideologically in beliefs and attitudes toward languages (Phillipson, 1992).

Linguistic hegemony is achieved when dominant groups create a consensus by convincing others to accept their language norms and usage as standard or paradigmatic. The term hegemony is applied when one language is given superior status while other languages are declared inferior. Hegemony is also ensured when they can convince those who fail to meet those standards to view their failure as being the result of the inadequacy of their own language. It refers to the transfer of a dominant language to other people. The transfer is essentially military power in the past and economic power at present. And various aspects of the dominant culture are usually transferred along with the language.

2.1.2 Development and Status Quo of Language Hegemony

The term linguistic imperialism originated in the 1930s as part of a critique of Basic English and was reintroduced by linguist Robert Phillipson in his monograph Linguistic Imperialism (OUP, 1992). Since the early 1990s, linguistic imperialism has attracted the attention among scholars of applied linguistics. In particular, Robert Phillipson’s 1992 book, Linguistic Imperialism, has led to considerable debate about its merits and shortcomings. Phillipson found denunciations of linguistic imperialism that dated back to Nazi critiques of the British Council and to Soviet analyses of English as the language world of capitalism and world domination.

Many scholars have participated in lively discussions of Phillipson’s claims. Alan Davies, for instance, envisions the specter of Phillipson haunting the Department of Applied Linguistics in Edinburgh. （Wikipedia）

For Davies, two cultures inhabit Linguistic Imperialism: one, a culture of guilt ("colonies should never have happened"); the other, that of romantic despair ("we shouldn’t be doing what we are doing"). Rajagopalan goes a step farther and maintains that Phillipson’s book has led to a guilt complex among English language learning and teaching (ELT) professionals

Furthermore, the assumption that the English language itself is imperialistic has come under attack. Henry Widdowson has argued that ‘there is a fundamental contradiction in the idea that the language of itself exerts hegemonic control.’

Those who see the increasing spread of English in the world as a worrying development (that marginalizes the status of local and regional languages as well as potentially undermining or eroding cultural values) are likely to be far more receptive to Phillipson's views. Alastair Pennycook, Suresh Canagarajah, Adrian Holliday and Julian Edge broadly fall into this group and are often described as critical applied linguists

As language is part of culture, linguistic imperialism is often manifested in the context of cultural imperialism. Today, increasing countries gradually realize the negative influence (erosion of native language and traditional culture) of English hegemony. Thus, they all strike to get rid of the negative effects of EH (English hegemony) and protect their own languages and traditional cultures.

2.2 Previous Studies on Measures against LH

2.2.1 Studies at Home

As scholars of China start to realize the true nature of English hegemony and stop touting English, they find it necessary to refer to measures taken by European non-English-speaking countries against English hegemony.

Yu Shilong (2008) introduces that EU has already taken numerous steps against LH. EU establishes and enacts multilingual policies to advocate the equality of all languages in EU. Specific articles from Charter of Fundamental Rights of EU in 2000 require its citizens to respect linguistic diversity and are strongly against language discrimination.

Li Keyong (2006) mentions that France has a long history of protecting and promoting French. Since the last century, the French has suffered a lot from the invasion of English. The government introduces specified laws aimed at standardizing the usage of French. The Usage of French and The Toubon are the most famous ones.

According to Liu Hongdong (2014), the France government spends a lot in training workers from international organizations to speak French with the purpose of promoting French. Also, France’s official and civil institutions such as French Union launch various cultural activities inside and outside France for promoting French.

Guo Han (2015) puts that there is no uniform language protection policy in Germany. Countermeasures such as providing scholarship for foreign German learners and requiring the use of German at academic conferences in Germany are taken.

2.2.2 Studies Abroad

In 1992, Robert Phillipson, a Denmark scholar, in his book Linguistic Imperialism, implied that the dominant position of English is actually a kind of hegemony in the field of language. And he uses ‘linguistic imperialism’ to refer to the concept. Through analysis of English language policy and language dissemination campaign in the process of English expansion, Robert criticizes the hegemony nature of English expansion. He reckons that the invasion of British and American culture weakens the national consciousness of Non-English-speaking countries.

Fortunately, the European countries have realized the importance of taking steps against English hegemony.

Eurydice (2006) introduces that in December 2000, the European Commission and the European Parliament adopted the Charter of fundamental rights, calling people to respect linguistic diversity of the member states. Subsequently 2001 was identified as European year of languages, calling upon people to recognize the status of different languages in EU.

Promotion of language learning and linguistic diversity-2004-2006 program of action (2003) aims to avoid trends to simplify language in the European Union.

In a report named Languages of Europe from European Commission (2013), it mentions that for years, the EU has developed a number of laws to protect the linguistic rights of the member states. According to the EU Language Charter, the new member states of the Union are encouraged to propose to make their national languages the official language of the European Union and all languages have the same legal status. For example, all EU legal texts should be translated into the official languages, in order to ensure accurate understanding and enforcement of laws in different countries. Besides, the use of any official language of the member states in the European Parliament debate should be allowed. And the interpreters provide all other official language with translation service. Apart from legislative protection, the EU approved of the funding and other measures to promote linguistic diversity.

According to The Polish Language Act, Polish is required in all official settings, at train and bus stations. Only a few major airport, major train stations and popular tourist attraction permit the use of English.

Chapter Three The Influence of Language Hegemony on European Non-English-speaking countries

3.1 Positive Influence

Popularization of English brings huge economic profits to European non-English-speaking countries. Before the popularization of English, there are fewer international students in Europe because of language barriers. But today influenced by English promotion, most European countries encourage their citizens to learn English. As a result, in Europe, people from different places now can communicate in English. Thus, Europeans’ mastery of English enables foreigners to study in European developed countries such as France, German etc. This widely employed international language provides foreigners with an easier access to study in the advanced European countries which generates a moderate revenue for these countries.

English, to some degree, breaks language barriers among European non-English-speaking countries. Statistically, there are more than 30 languages in Europe which causes difficulties in communication. The popularization of English eases the situation. According to a survey published in 2006 by U.K. UNESCO, 13% of EU citizens speak English as their native language. Another 38% of EU citizens state that they have sufficient skills in English to have a conversation which means over half of European citizens can communicate in English. We all know that communication is crucial for appropriate understanding which is beneficial to European integration.

3.2 Negative Influence

3.2.1 Linguistic inequality

Besides English-speaking countries such as America, England, Australia, Canada, there are over 70 countries whose official language is English. And more than 100 countries establish English as their first foreign language. Nearly 1/4 of the world population employs English for communication.

A report from UK UNESCO in 2001 shows that about half of the 6000 existing languages may face the fate of extinction in the future. David Crystal, a British linguist, estimates that in the 21th century, 80 percent of the existing languages may disappear. According to Michael Klaus from Center for the National Language in Alaska, by 2100, 90 percent of the present languages will be endangered. （2006）

The monopoly position of English is partially responsible for it. In this sense, English plays a role as a language killer.

The pervasiveness of English may be devastating and even mean the extinction of their languages, cultures and identities. It’s true that the extinction of languages has existed for a long time. But the extinction appears bigger on scale and faster than before due to English’s influence. As for some countries, it costs much to defend mother tongues against LH. For example, every year, France spends $ 100 million promoting French culture, but still French only ranks 9th among popular languages in the world. Even French scientists are pessimistic about their situation. They once said that "Either publishing articles in English, or using French to the extinction of France’s science"

In Europe, the German, French and Russian are on the decline. In Central Europe, the passion for the German language declines every day. Only in the Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia, the number of elementary students who learn German is similar to that of English learners. Splendid culture of France also fails to resist the influence of English in Europe. Only in Romania, French is more popular than English. Russian is still the Balkan countries’ second language. In these countries, there are plenty of ethnic minorities who still have Russian as their mother tongue. But in Poland and Slovakia Russian has fallen to the third place while in Hungary and the Czech Republic, few people learn Russian. (2006)

In EU, minority language users have to employ a European lingua franca (English) for communication. This indirectly reinforces the position of lingua franca and weakens minority languages. Objectively speaking, the situation intensifies the inequality among languages.

3.2.2 Academic inequity

In the field of academy, English becomes the international language. The United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada, considered as academic leaders in the world today, all use English as their official languages. English has a super strong leading position in the academic field. In the United States, fund on researches accounts for almost half of the entire funds in the world. In addition, half of the world’s most influential colleges are in the United States. Major scientific and scholarly journals are also published in English, for example, the world’s most famous scientific literature indexing, SCI and SSCI.

In the field of education, textbooks written by English-speaking countries fail to take into account the differences among cultures, values and ways of thinking between English-speaking and European non-English-speaking countries. Unfortunately, students there passively accept cultures of English-speaking countries in the process of English teaching and learning.

3.2.3 Economic inequality

In the business field, English has become the most frequently used language of communication for international commerce and trade. Most European countries have or are about to join the World Trade Organization and their accession obviously will strengthen the dominance position of the English in the EU. In Central Europe, just as in most parts of the world, mastery of English has been as common as driving and the use of personal computers. Demand from foreign investors also makes English a more preferred language for international communication. International European companies are more likely to use English as their work language under the international environment. A good example is that over the last 10 years, the German company Siemens which invests much in Central European uses English as its corporate language.

Chapter Four Countermeasures against LH

4.1 Countermeasures against LH by European Non-English-speaking Countries

4.1.1 Multi-language policy

In EU, European multilingual policy is characterized by two aspects: first, using multiple official languages and working languages in the European Union. The EU first establishes 11 official languages, under the principle that “languages of countries (whether big or small) are equal". The EU is constantly striking to increase the number of official languages. Secondly, it requires the recognition of and respect for languages of all member states of the European Union, including regional and minority languages. The EU also encourages member states to develop language policies to promote foreign language learning and train multilingual citizens.

• Emphasize the importance of multilingualism by law and policy

European Community’s First Regulation on Language which was enacted in 1958 required that languages of all member states shared equality as official languages and working languages. In 1977, the European Council adopted the European Cultural Convention, requesting member states to encourage citizens to learn languages, history and cultures of other member states. In 1981, European Community Charter of Regional Languages and Cultures and Minority rights was adopted. In1983, Resolution on Support for Minority Languages and Cultures was adopted. In 1987, the Resolution on Regional or Minority Languages and Cultures was issued. In 1992, the EC Treaty demanded that member states of the EU should respect the linguistic, ethnic and religious diversity, safeguard the common European cultural heritage and promote cultural prosperity of all member states. In 1997, the Treaty of Amsterdam stipulated that any citizen of the member states may use any official language to write to any institutions of the European Union. And the Agency must reply in the same language. In 1999, it was reaffirmed in the Declaration of Bologna that in the process of the construction of the European higher education, EU also need to take into account differences among national cultures and languages, educational systems, cooperation between Governments, non-governmental organizations and so on. We can see that the European government plays an active role in the promotion of language policies for protecting regional and minority languages.

The EU initially emphasized importance of multilingualism to individuals but later stressed the significance of multilingualism to economic development and social harmony. Based on the new concept, the EU adopted a series of policies and regulations, requiring member states to further strengthen and perfect the multilingual system. In 2000, the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU prohibited discrimination against language, and demanded respect for national, religious and linguistic diversity of member states. In 2001, the European Parliament adopted Resolution on Regional and Minority languages which clearly funds on the development of minority languages.

• Open specialized agencies promoting multilingualism

At first, the European Executive Committee of Education and Culture is responsible for EU’s multilingual affairs. But with the accelerated pace of economic globalization and increasing need for international exchange and cooperation, the EU needs to further implement multilingual strategy. In November 2004, the function of the European Executive Committee of Education and Culture has expanded, with its name changed to the European Commission for education, training, cultural and linguistic diversity. At the same year, European Commission releases a study about the feasibility of creating a European language learning and linguistic diversity Office. In 2005, according to the findings of the study, the European Commission puts forward two ideas: creating a special office in charge of multilingualism promotion or establishing a network of EU named "language diversity center”. In response to this study, in January 2007, the EU separated the office of Multilingual Affairs from the office of Education and Cultural Affairs. The EU set up Committee of EU Multilingual Affairs, with a new member Leonard Orban in charge. After the appointment, the new Executive of the committee addressed to members of EU institutions and European universities about the significance of actively promoting the multilingual policy. Leonard Orban emphasizes that multilingual ability of citizens is job skills and reflects one’s competitiveness in a job; He puts that residents of member states should learn one foreign language at least. He also advises member states to do more to improve language teachers’ teaching skills. In addition, he launches the "multilingual education" campaign, hoping to persuade adults of all EU member states into learning a foreign language.

In France, the French try to protect their culture from invasion of other cultures and attempt to avoid cultural simplification and homogenization for years. In France, spreading French is included in the protection of "cultural diversity" campaign. They realize that promoting French language solely in the international environment is unrealistic.Only through the promotion of multilingualism, which recognizes and respects the diversity of languages, can French maintain a relatively important position. In order to maintain the vitality of French itself, France Government strikes to promote multilingualism in the world. In 1995 when France held the EU's presidency, the president adopted a policy, which encouraged schools of EU to provide at least two foreign languages classes. It absolutely increases the likelihood of French being selected as the second foreign language. In 2002, at EU Summit it was proposed once again that EU citizens should master one foreign language. With France’s efforts in language promotion in Europe, more students prefer French as their second language. Thus the number of people in learning French increased dramatically.

In Nordic areas, according to the Declaration on a Nordic Language policy, the followings are demanded in order to promote multilingualism:

• Language comprehension and language skills

1. Classroom instruction in neighbor languages should be improved, as should instruction in Scandinavian languages as lingua francas and foreign languages
2. The languages of the Nordic countries essential to society should be visible in public life, for example in TV and films.
3. The availability of books in the languages of the Nordic countries essential to society should be promoted.
4. Inter-Nordic dictionaries should be compiled in printed and electronic form.
5. Computer translation programs for the languages of the Nordic countries essential to society and programs for multilingual searches in Nordic databases should be developed

• The parallel use of languages

The parallel use of language refers to the concurrent use of several languages within one or more areas. None of the languages abolishes or replaces the other; they are used in parallel.

4.1.2 Maintenance of Native Language at Home

In France, the following are the major measures taken at home to maintain their native language’s status

• Strengthen language legislation

In order to defend French against English hegemony, France government enacts relevant laws and strengthens regulations on protecting their own language. Several times in different historical periods, France government used laws and regulations as means of guaranteeing status of French.

In December 1975, the Usage of French was enacted. It was France's first formal legislative specific requirements for French use. It required that in commercial and industrial areas of France, French must be used. So did all the advertisement, product brochures and public signs.

In 1992, the Government revised the Constitution of 1958, claiming that "the language of the Republic is French", which reinforced the position of French through constitutional means.

In 1994, France Parliament and the Senate amended and supplemented the former law the Usage of French. The new law added articles about labor, education, broadcasting, television, and other aspects of language use. The main contents of the new law are as follows: It required that you must use French in the following conditions: when you introduce products to consumers or provide service; make use of public areas or public transport for advertisement; contracts signed by officials must be signed in French; International conferences; all labor contracts must be written in French; the language of instruction is French; radio and television should contribute to the protection and dissemination of French with its programming and advertising content, sent or transmitted in any manner whatsoever, using French.

The Toubon law concerning the usage of French was adopted by Parliament in August 1994. In order to protect French against English imperialism, Toubon set that in advertising, radio and television broadcasts, French must be solely used. So do publications in France. When holding seminars in France, French must be used during the seminars.

• Set up French Academy and Committee of French Terminology to standardize the use of French

The French nation has a tradition of protecting their linguistic purity. For years, words expressing new concepts are drafted by a special Government Committee and are compiled into a Dictionary. Those new words intend to replace loan words from English. However, many new words have not been widely accepted. In 1998, the Government introduced a French plan for French entering the information era. The plan aims to create a new French-language terminology in order to ensure French’s position in the IT industry on the English-dominant Internet.

• Government and People

Promotion of French is a national policy in France and successive governments have attached great importance to it. Even France president is responsible for language promotion. Several times, on different occasions, presidents take concrete actions to safeguard the status of French. France Government spares no effort in funding for promotion of French. Though France's economy is weak now, France is willing to spend money promoting French. In 2003, according to Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the budget of language and culture promotion mounts to 20.31 billion euros, much more than that of other countries. The budget of French-speaking international organization amounts to 2 billion euros, with 2/3 of it paid by France.

In France, from the President, Government Ministers to the ordinary people, most of the French have a strong sense of awareness and responsibility for the dilemma of French. French linguist Morris once said that defending French is equally important as strengthening military power. The Government guarantees and regulates the use of French not only through legislation but also through various practical initiatives such as improving the French language literacy and language awareness. From 1987 to present, every year, the local organization held "national dictation contest in French”. This further motivates the French to love and take pride in French.

In Denmark, there is no official statutory document that nominates Danish as the national language for the Kingdom of Denmark. In 2008, a report was launched by the Ministry of Culture to strengthen the position of the Danish language. The revitalization of the Danish language is one of the underpinning themes that are highlighted in the government's cultural policy, elected in November 2007. The focus of this report and the initiatives resulting from it is to promote the Danish language. The committee wishes to promote joy and pride in the Danish language through concrete initiatives:

• Strengthen the Danish language in the home, day-care and schools;
• Strengthen the Danish language in the universities;
• A campaign to increase the focus on the joy related to knowing and using the Danish language was launched in September 2010 at http://www.gangisproget.dk.
• The increasing focus on cultural heritage in Danish cultural policy today has led to several governmental initiatives in order to present the Danish language and its history to its speakers;
• Danish schools are obliged to instruct their pupils in the Danish language. Private independent schools, also, must teach in Danish, according to the Act on Private Independent Schools (Friskoleloven). Up to 10 private independent schools have been granted permission to operate, in some school departments, in English, German or French. Only 4 schools are allowed simply to instruct in English, German and French throughout the whole school year;

In Poland, the official national language of Poland is Polish. The national interest in protecting the Polish language is expressed through the adoption of The Polish Language Act in 1999. Virtually all official information will usually be in Polish only. Street signs, directions, information signs, etc. are routinely only in Polish, as are schedules and announcements at train and bus stations (airports and a few major train stations seem to be an exception to this). When it comes to information signs in museums, churches, etc., signs in multiple languages are typically found only in popular tourist destinations.

Regarding the teaching of Polish in schools, the following are the main points, set out in greater detail in the Country Report:

A. Polish is taught as a compulsory language at all levels and types of schools and instruction;

B. Polish is also the prescribed language of instruction;

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