论文总字数：66599字

摘 要

1980年，乔治·莱考夫和马克·约翰逊出版了《我们赖以生存的隐喻》一书，完成了隐喻研究的“认知转向”。概念隐喻是该隐喻研究的核心概念，这一理论的提出为隐喻研究提供了全新视角。中国国家主席习近平公开发表的讲话中使用了大量隐喻，这些隐喻在帮助听众理解中国对国内外事务的态度与立场中发挥了重要作用。因此，对政治话语中概念隐喻的翻译研究可以为译者在翻译政治话语中类似的隐喻提供良好的借鉴，并为概念隐喻的翻译提供有益的启示。

本文从概念隐喻研究中的源域、目标域和映射概念出发，以习主席在《习近平谈治国理政：第二卷》中的讲话为个案，通过提取其中概念隐喻并将其分类，讨论所采用的概念隐喻背后的政治立场和政治态度，最后总结出译文中的翻译策略。

研究结果表明，从习主席讲话中可以归纳出十类概念隐喻：旅行隐喻、家庭隐喻、战争隐喻、工程隐喻、 动物隐喻、人类隐喻、 疾病隐喻、机械隐喻、植物隐喻、气候隐喻。在此基础上，总结出了三种翻译方法，分别为保留概念隐喻，替换概念隐喻和删除概念隐喻。

关键词：概念隐喻；隐喻翻译；政治话语；习近平讲话

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements i

Abstract ii

摘要 iii

Chapter I Introduction 1

1.1 Research Background 1

1.2 Significance of the Research 1

1.3 Research Questions 2

1.4 Thesis Structure 2

Chapter II Literature Review 3

2.1 Conceptual Metaphor Theory 3

2.1.1 Definition of Conceptual Metaphor 3

2.1.2 Mechanism of Conceptual Metaphor 3

2.2 Studies on Conceptual Metaphor Translation 4

2.2.1 Studies Abroad 5

2.2.2 Studies at Home 6

2.3 Studies on the Translation of President Xi’s Speeches 7

Chapter III An Analysis of Conceptual Metaphors in President Xi Jinping’s Speeches and Translation Methods 9

3.1 Analysis of Conceptual Metaphors in Xi’s Speeches of Different Categories 9

3.1.1 Journey Metaphor 9

3.1.2 War Metaphor 13

3.1.3 Construction Metaphor 15

3.1.4 Disease Metaphor 17

3.1.5 Animal Metaphor 18

3.1.6 Human Metaphor 19

3.1.7 Machine Metaphor 21

3.1.8 Family Metaphor 22

3.1.9 Plant Metaphor 23

3.1.10 Weather Metaphor 25

3.2 Translation Methods of Conceptual Metaphors in President Xi’s Speeches 26

3.2.1 Conceptual Metaphor Preservation for the Equivalent Mappings 26

3.2.2 Conceptual Metaphor Substitution for the Non-equivalent Mappings 28

3.2.3 Conceptual Metaphor Deletion for the Non-Equivalent Mappings 29

Chapter IV Conclusion 32

4.1 Major Findings 32

4.2 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Study 34

References: 35

Chapter I Introduction

1.1 Research Background

Metaphor is a dispensable part either in our speaking or in our writing. The importance of metaphor was firstly stressed by Aristotle. He views the mastery of metaphor as the greatest thing, treating metaphor as a figure of speech. Then many scholars started to study metaphor from rhetorics, semantics and pragmatics. However, The focus of metaphor studies has shifted to the cognitive perspective of metaphor since the 1980s when the book Metaphors We Live By was published., which holds that our behavior is basically metaphoric in essence (Lakoff amp; Johnson, 2003, p.3).

Nowadays, political discourses are always closely connected to metaphors. Statesmen use metaphors to argue with the opposite parties and reach out to the audience. Metaphor, therefore, plays an indispensable role in a political speech, helping to clarify the complex and specify the abstract. After assuming office, President Xi has attended various political meetings and delivered numbers of speeches, which convey China’s policies essential for the government to develop China’s economy. Those speeches help the general public to better understand China’s decisions on important issues. In Xi’s speeches, metaphors can be easily found. Metaphor, in this sense, acts as a medium for Xi to simplify ideology of China and clarify Xi’s wisdoms and ideas so as to facilitate audience’s comprehension. Consequently, it is of great necessity to study metaphors used in Xi’s speeches as well as how to translate them from Chinese to English. This research aims to address three questions from the perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory and finally generalizes a set of translation methods for metaphors in political discourse.

1.2 Significance of the Research

Theoretically speaking, by combining conceptual metaphor analysis with political speeches, it will be clearly seen that how conceptual metaphor helps speakers clearly deliver ideas and stances. Besides, it will also be helpful for further studies on either political speeches or conceptual metaphors.

As for the practical significance, the research will be useful for both translators and interpreters who need help in translating metaphors inevitably used in political speeches.

1.3 Research Questions

This thesis concentrates on the following questions:

1. What are the main types of conceptual metaphors applied in the speeches?
2. Whether their corresponding English versions contain the same type of conceptual metaphors as them or different from them, or even no conceptual metaphors at all?
3. What are the main translation methods of conceptual metaphors in the speeches?

1.4 Thesis Structure

In this thesis, four chapters are included.

The first chapter introduces information on why and how this research is conducted, including the background, significance and questions of the research, and lastly the layout of this thesis.

The second chapter, the literature review part, takes a comprehensive look at Conceptual Metaphor Theory, studies on conceptual metaphor translation and researches on translation of President Xi’s speeches.

The third chapter is the body part of this thesis, analyzing conceptual metaphors used in President Xi’s political speeches and generalizing metaphor translation methods. All in total ten types of conceptual metaphors will be discussed and analysis of each category will be done with a couple of examples taken from Xi’s speeches.

The final chapter is the conclusion part. The major findings will be recapitulated and the limitations of this thesis and suggestions for further studies will be put forward.

Chapter II Literature Review

2.1 Conceptual Metaphor Theory

In Metaphors We Live By, the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) was first proposed by Lakoff and Johnson. According to them, metaphor is used in every aspect of our lives. Apart from language, metaphor also exists in our thought and action, which means our thought and behavior are metaphorical in essence (2003, p. 4). They perceived that concepts play a crucial role in our daily life and that metaphor is actually guiding our cognition and how we think and act (2003, p. 4).

2.1.1 Definition of Conceptual Metaphor

Lakoff and Johnson (2003) claimed that “the essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another” (p. 5). It is often the case that we use one concept of more concreteness and familiarity to help understand another of more abstractness and unfamiliarity. Conceptual metaphor, in this sense, means to understand one concept/thing by referring to another. The more concrete concept is termed the Source Domain. The more abstract one is called the Target Domain. Therefore, conceptual metaphor is a reflection of the systematic connection between the two domains.

2.1.2 Mechanism of Conceptual Metaphor

In linguistics, that a target domain reflects a source domain is termed “Cross-Domain Mapping”. This kind of mapping shows how conceptual metaphor works. Lakoff and Turner (1989) analyzed the process of this mapping: “the entities, relations, properties as well as knowledge in the source domain are correspondingly mapped onto the ones in the target domain”.

An examination of the conceptual metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY will help to understand this process. In LIFE IS A JOURNEY, life is the target domain while journey is the source domain. The former is comparatively hard to understand, but when the latter is mapped onto former, readers can understand the concept “life” better with the help of the concept “journey” in that every one of us has the experience of traveling. Between the two domains, there are some mappings as listed below:

This table clearly shows the relation between life (the source domain) and journey (the target domain). With the elements in source domain, we can better understand the more abstract in life. For example, our journey in life begins from the moment we were born. If we reach some destinations, that metaphorically means we achieve our goals in life. And we usually say that one has come so far, so s/he mustn’t give up, in which “has come so far” in source domain means the progress one has made in life. In short, in a conceptual metaphor, elements in source domain are mapped onto elements in target domain and this mapping is actually “how we get around in the world and how we relate to other people” (Lakoff amp; Johnson, 2003, p. 4).

2.2 Studies on Conceptual Metaphor Translation

In early stage, researches usually focus on the translation from the lexical perspective, which views metaphor as a figure of speech to decorate the languages. The CMT changed the trend. More and more scholars started to study metaphor translation with CMT.

2.2.1 Studies Abroad

Before CMT, studies of metaphor translation centered upon translatability of metaphor. Eugene A. Nida (1969) proposed the untranslatability of metaphor, holding that in most cases metaphors are translated into units lacking metaphorical sense (p. 220). While Dagut(1976) challenged Nida, asserting that metaphor could be translated in cultural sense (p. 32). It is the some specific cultural experiences and language characteristics that give the chance to metaphor translation. Subsequently, Peter Newmark did a comprehensive research on metaphor translation and even viewed the translation of metaphor more important than the translation of others when it comes to translation. Meanwhile, Peter Newmark (2011) put forward seven techniques for metaphor translation.

Since the publication of Metaphors We Live By, the focus of metaphor translation has been put on cognitive perspective gradually. Snell-Hernby (1988) believed that metaphors of different types have distinct conceptual features according to the classifications of metaphors by Lakoff and Johnson in 1980 (p. 130-132). She also claimed that the abstract rules proposed by Newmark could not guide metaphor translation, but they could decide the structures and functions of metaphors in a given text. Mandelblit (1995) concluded two types of mappings in The Cognitive Translation Hypothesis: similar mapping conditions and different mapping conditions, stressing that the change from target domain to source domain is a process of transforming concept, the translation of which needs the translator to build a concept mapping system. Maalej (2008) put forward two metaphorical translation theories, stating that similar metaphors are supported by similar mapping situations and that different mapping conditions serve as different metaphorical foundations (p. 67). Al-Hasnawi (2007) asserted that the translator’s task is to “make a text of the target language whose output is basically similar to the original text” (p.4). Holding the same view, Kövecses (2002) put forward four metaphor translation theories from the perspective of source and target language, which divide metaphors into four types: 1) metaphors with same mapping conditions and lexical units 2) metaphors with same mapping conditions but different lexical units 3) metaphors with different mapping conditions but same lexical units 4) metaphors with different mapping conditions and lexical units (p. 184). Later in 2013, Sara conducted a contrastive study on metaphors in the original texts and corresponding ones in the translated texts, intending to devise a methodology for analyzing metaphor translation.

As can be seen from these metaphor studies, there is a trend to study metaphor translation with a cognitive focus. Cognitive perspective shows a new approach to studying metaphor translation. Therefore, it’s of significance to employ CMT to study metaphor translation.

2.2.2 Studies at Home

Though western studies on conceptual metaphor and its translation were prior to those in Chinese, many domestic scholars have conducted fruitful researches as well.

Xiao Kunxue followed the CMT, believing that metaphor is not just a figure of speech but an effective tool for understanding abstract concepts by referring to concrete ones. Xiao (2005) opinioned that the cognitive approach to metaphor translation is of great significance.

Zhao Dongsheng (2012) studied the translatability of conceptual metaphors from Chinese to English. He proposed that a cross-cultural mapping can help to translate conceptual metaphors from Chines to English, putting forward four translation strategies: 1) equivalent substitution 2) literal translation of vehicles 3) images change 4) structural extension.

As for translation strategies, many scholars have also done systematic researches. Yu Gaofeng (2011) pointed out five translation techniques: 1) literal translation 2) free translation 3) simile adoption 4) metonymy adoption and 5) metaphor preservation with further explanation. Sun Fenglan (2016) contrasted three versions of the translation of Huangdi Neijing under the guidance of CMT and concluded that it is preferable not to confine to one particular strategy. Lei and Tian (2014) constructed a model for metaphor translation, which will provide an optimal translation version with adaptive selection.

Other scholars studied conceptual metaphor translation according to various theories. Zhang and Li (2014) analyzed two versions of translations of Huangdi Neijing from Conceptual Blending Theory. Referring to the CMT, Zhang Xi (2012) studied Pound’s permanent metaphors and concluded that the best translation will come if metaphors in the ST can be preserved in the TT.

In a nutshell, much progress has been made in studying conceptual metaphor translation. However, the previous studies haven’t focused much on the mapping between source domain and target domain. Therefore, it is of significance to studies conceptual metaphor translation from this perspective.

2.3 Studies on the Translation of President Xi’s Speeches

President Xi Jinping has delivered a large amount of speeches in different political occasions, which are crucial for both domestic and foreign audience to understand China’s foreign policies and stance on both China’s and international affairs.

Tang Yijun (2015) discussed methods viable for translating specific Chinese expression pattern in Xi’s speeches to English, namely “科学(的)”, with the emphasis on lexical collocation. Lin and Lin (2016) analyzed the translation of Xi’s speeches with the focus on cultural factors. Luo, Zhang and Ge (2016) studied the translation of expressions with strong Chinese characteristics and pointed out translation methods for this kind of expressions. Li Yue (2016) conducted an analysis of euphemisms in Xi’s speeches and their translation from Chinese to Japanese and then concluded some translation strategies for translating political discourses. Qi Ji (2015) discussed Chinese-specific words in Xi’s speeches and their translation strategies. Qi stated that the translation method to be chosen depends on the goal of international communication and that domestication and foreignization are both needed.

Zhang Kaige (2015) analyzed Xi’s speeches from the Eco-translatology perspective and proposed several translation strategies for political texts. He explained that to achieve the high integration of ST and TT, translators should have a comprehensive understanding of the environment of source and target language, so that they can choose the optimal translation method. Li Yutong (2015) analyzed Xi’s speeches from the perspective of Text Typology, Skopos Theory and Functionalism. She concluded that the translation of Xi’s speeches follows the functionalist translation theory and preserves the structure and cultural characteristics of the original text. Huang Chun (2015) studied the translation of Xi’s speeches from Rewriting Theory. He argued that in order to achieve effective international communication, translators should take linguistic and cultural factors into consideration.

This literature review shows that the CMT is guiding the studies on metaphor, which takes metaphor as a natural thinking process of human being from the cognitive perspective. A look at CMT will inject vitality to metaphor translation, for CMT revolves around how we perceive a metaphor. Metaphor translation in this way is more practicable and plausible. Besides, Presidents Xi’s speeches are full of metaphors, which makes the study on how they can be translated inevitable. Therefore, it is of great significance to study metaphors in political discourses with CMT with a case study of President Xi’s speeches.

Chapter III An Analysis of Conceptual Metaphors in President Xi Jinping’s Speeches and Translation Methods

3.1 Analysis of Conceptual Metaphors in Xi’s Speeches of Different Categories

President Xi Jinping has delivered lots of speeches in various political occasions. However, taking the authority of translation into consideration, the author analyzes the speeches in The Governance of China published in 2017. Metaphors identified in this book will be classified according to their source domains. This classification is also adopted by Wang Weimin (2012), Wang Hong (2017), and Ji Yan (2018). There are 10 kinds of conceptual metaphors used:1) Journey Metaphor(about the number of 550) 2) War Metaphor(470) 3) Construction Metaphor(400) 4) Disease Metaphor(70) 5) Animal Metaphor(30) 6) Human Metaphor(120) 7) Machine Metaphor(200) 8) Family Metaphor(60) 9) Plant Metaphor(150) 10) Weather Metaphor(20).

3.1.1 Journey Metaphor

Journey is a process of movement from starting point to destination. Everyone must have experienced some journey or another. So journey domain as an effective source domain is quite familiar to all of us. Political terms and ideologies are comparatively abstract, but speakers can explain them to us more easily and more clearly with the help of journey metaphors. Of all the conceptual metaphors used, Xi uses journey metaphor most, which shows how the concept of journey can be well perceived by people from all walks of life. In general, four journey conceptual metaphors can be concluded: 1) the development of socialism is a journey 2) the development of the country is a journey 3) the development of the Party is a journey 4) Reform and Opening up is a journey.

1. The development of socialism is a journey.
2. “中国特色社会主义是前无古人的伟大事业，……社会主义现代化建设还有很长的路要走(Xi, 2017, p. 9)。”
3. “方向决定道路，道路决定命运。中国特色社会主义不是从天上掉下来的…….(Xi, p. 36) 。”
4. “我们要坚信，中国特色社会主义道路是实现社会主义现代化的必由之路……(Xi, p. 36)。”

The examples listed above show that in Xi’s speeches, journey is mapped onto the development of socialism. The latter, to ordinary people, is relatively difficult to understand, while the former can help to clarify the idea. In example a, that the development of socialism still has a long way to go （“还有很长的路要走”） means that problems need to be tackled and that hard work to be done before reaching the destination. The rest of the journey before reaching the destination is mapped onto the efforts to be made before realizing modern socialism. In example b, the direction of our country （“方向”） is highlighted, which is socialism with Chinese characteristics instead of capitalism. In a journey, if an explorer wants to survive a difficult surrounding, the decision on which way to take will be crucial. On our way to a superpower, China must choose the right direction to stand out in this cut-throat world. So it is implied that China must cling to socialism with Chinese characteristics and further develop it. Example c also illustrates the ideology behind example b.

1. The development of the country is a journey.
2. “……我们伟大的祖国正一天天走向繁荣富强，中华民族正一步步走向伟大复兴 (Xi, p. 13)。”
3. “由于政治发展道路选择错误而导致社会动荡、国家分裂、人亡政息的例子比比皆是 (Xi, p. 285)。”
4. “经济结构调整是痛苦的，却是不得不过的关口 (Xi, p. 233)。”

The examples listed above show that journey is mapped onto the development of our country. In the first example, the country is the traveler in a journey and the destination China is heading to is the abstract prosperity and national rejuvenation（“繁荣富强” 和“伟大复兴”）. This implies that the efforts China is making pay off and that China is becoming stronger. The positive aspect of the destination is mapped onto the good side of China’s development. Example b alludes to the importance of a correct political path （“政治发展道路”）to the destination. How smooth a journey can be depends largely on the choice of the route. Similarly, the development of China also needs a right way that helps to avoid disasters and troubles. The choice of a path is mapped onto the decision in China’s development. In the last example, it is implied that China’s development still needs to undergo many unavoidable changes（that’s what “关口” means.）. Like in a journey, if one wants to get to the destination, one must overcome difficulties and problems encountered to finish the journey, which are mapped onto the difficulties in China’s development. Therefore, it can be seen that China’s development is on the way and will not shirk from reaching the end.

1. The development of the Party is a journey.
2. “我们党要要带领13亿多人民全面建成小康社会，必须……新常态，创新……方法，提高…….能力，为发展航船定好向、掌好舵 (Xi, p. 19)。”
3. “一切向前走，都不能忘记走过的路；走得再远、走到再光辉的未来，也不能忘记走过的过去，不能忘记为什么出发。……全党同志一定要不忘初心、继续前进 (Xi, p. 32-33) 。”
4. “我们党之所以…...我们要赢得优势、赢得主动、赢得未来，战胜前进道路上各种各样的拦路虎、绊脚石……(Xi, p. 67)。”

Elements in target domain (the Party’s development) are mapped onto the corresponding ones in the source domain (journey). The Party itself and the Party members are the travelers. The well-developed communism is the destination. The choice to depend deeply on people is decision on which road to take. Problems in development are the troubles in a journey. In example a, the development of CPC is compared to a journey on the sea. So, the role played by CPC is the helmsman who is the key to steering the ship of development to the destination （“定好向、掌好舵”）. The helmsman in a journey on the sea is mapped onto the leader in the China’s development. That means the CPC is leading the country in the right way. In example b, the path we have taken（“走过的路”）is mapped onto the process or the achievement the Party has made. All party members as the travellers still needs to continuing marching forward （“继续前进”）to the destination where the Party can accomplish its goals. In example c, the stress is put on the difficulties in moving forward, which are mapped onto the predicaments in the Party’s development. With the conceptual metaphors, it is made clear that the Party shall face the problems bravely and boldly and eventually overcome what’s imminent.

1. Reform and Opening up is a journey.
2. “改革必须坚持正确方向，既不走封闭僵化的老路、也不走改旗易帜的邪路(Xi, p. 39)。”
3. “中国坚持通过改革破解前进中遇到的困难和挑战，敢于啃硬骨头、涉险滩……(Xi, p. 483)。”
4. “改革既要往有利于增添发展新动力方向前进，也要往有利于维护社会公平正义方向前进……(Xi, p.103)。”

Reforming and Opening up is one of the most crucial policies our country has ever taken, and the use of the journey concept can help people to better understand it. In example a, it is emphasized that in the journey of Reforming and Opening up a correct direction is all that matters, which is the same as in real journey. Old and misleading paths （“老路”和“邪路”）are mapped onto wrong decisions in Reform and Opening up. Suppose one wants to go to the beach in the west, old and misleading paths will only lead him/her in the opposite direction. What is likely is that he will not reach the destination, which means once a wrong way or direction is taken the result won’t come as one expects. In example b, it is highlighted that China must tackle problems ahead in reform with bravery, which the terrible situations in a journey are mapped onto. In example c, the right directions are pointed out. Reform and Opening up needs to follow the right ways, only which can lead to the destination expected. The right directions are mapped onto the right decisions in Reform and Opening up.

3.1.2 War Metaphor

A look at history suggests that modern China has suffered the aggression and evasion of western countries. Under the leadership of the CPC, Chinese armies have fought fierce battles bravely and eventually the People's Republic of China was founded. Following that took place many political upheavals. Therefore, it is understandable that war metaphors are used frequently as well. From Xi’s speeches, three main conceptual metaphors are concluded: 1) the development of the country is a war 2) poverty alleviation is a war 3) anti-corruption campaign is a war.

1. The development of the country is a war.
2. “现在，我们经济发展进入新常态……必须实施创新驱动发展战略……(Xi, p. 146)。”
3. “县委是我们党执政兴国的“一线指挥部”，县委书记就是“一线总指挥” (Xi, p. 167)。”
4. “我们要按照……各项要求，突出抓重点、补短板、强弱项，特别是要坚决打好防范化解重大风险、精准脱贫 、污染防治的攻坚战……(Xi, p. 63)。”

To win a war, the strategies are decisive to the result for they decide the general direction where the army will head. In the first example, strategies （“战略”）in source domain of war are mapped onto the corresponding guidelines in China’s economic development. The importance of innovation is therefore highlighted. In example b, “frontline command（一线指挥部）” and “commanders-in-chief （一线总指挥） are originally used in war. Here they are mapped onto county Party committees and their secretaries, which will help to emphasize how vital their roles are in the war of China’s development. Besides, as leaders, they must command our people well, or else the war cannot be won. In the last example, a tough battle （“攻坚战”）in the source domain means that those areas in target domain needs more attention and should be carefully dealt with. And only when all those battles are won can the general war be won, which is the strong development of China.

1. Poverty alleviation is a war.
2. “……脱贫攻坚面临的形势与任务……脱贫攻坚任务作出部署……齐心协力打赢脱贫攻坚战 (Xi, p. 83) 。”
3. “……特别是要下决心解决软弱涣散基层班子的问题，发挥好村党组织在脱贫攻坚中的战斗堡垒作用 (Xi, p. 92) 。”
4. “造成各地深度贫困的原因各不相同，集中优势兵力打歼灭战要从各地实际出发……(Xi, p. 88)。”

Example a exactly and clearly shows what needs to be done in the war against poverty. The current situation （“形势”）needs to be analyzed and strategies to be mapped out （“部署”）. And most importantly, all forces of the Party will be mobilized to win this war. All source domain elements are mapped onto the corresponding ones in target domain. In the second example, the role played by village Party branches is emphasized. Fortress （“战斗堡垒”） is originally used in war, meaning a strong building or a well-protected place. Here, it is mapped onto the role of Party branches, which means branches perform a decisive role in this battle. In the last example, superior forces （“优势兵力”） are mapped onto the main manpower and material resources; While battles of annihilation （“歼灭战”）are mapped onto the elimination of poverty one place after another, suggesting determination in the fight against poverty.

1. Anti-corruption campaign is a war.
2. “…...反腐败斗争压倒性态势正在形成 (Xi, p.161) 。”
3. “……建设忠诚干净担当的纪检监察队伍，不断取得党风廉政建设和反腐败斗争新成效 (Xi, p.163) 。”

In a war, there must be the winning side and losing side, which is “压倒性态势”. Similarly, these are mapped onto the campaign against corruption. As example a suggests, the Party and the country are on the winning side while the corruption is on the losing side. This reveals the generally positive situation in anti-corruption campaign. In the second example, “队伍” originally means the army, while here it is mapped onto the anti-corruption group; and “斗争” means work to be done in fighting against corruption in the target domain. It sends out the message that the teams of discipline inspection and supervision are to be built honestly, cleanly and responsibly.

3.1.3 Construction Metaphor

The word Construction has so many meanings. But in this thesis, it refers mainly to all kinds of buildings such as house and bridge, and the parts of buildings like door, window and wall. We all have easy access to buildings in reality, even the process of a construction. So in this sense, the use of construction metaphors is helpful for audience to comprehend comparatively more abstract political ideas. Basically, in construction metaphor, the construction foundation is most frequently-used element in the source domain. There are two main construction metaphors concluded: 1) a moderately prosperous society is a construction 2) international cooperation is a construction.

1. A moderately prosperous society is a construction.
2. “……使7亿多农村贫困人口成功脱贫，为全面建成小康社会打下了坚实基础 (Xi, p. 84)。”
3. “……协调推进全面建成小康社会……推动改革开放和社会主义现代化建设迈上新台阶 (Xi, p.22) 。”
4. “如果应对不好，或者发生系统性风险、犯颠覆性错误，就会延误甚至终端全面建设小康社会进程（Xi, p.72）。”

As we know, any building is constructed from the foundation. In the first example, a moderately prosperous society （“小康社会”）is metaphorically the edifice that China is building. To make the it strong, we need a solid foundation (“坚实基础”), which is mapped onto the good start of building a moderately prosperous society. This clarifies the fundamental role played by poverty alleviation. In the second example, a new stairway (“新台阶”) is originally a part inside or outside a building. By using this, Xi means a new level. To step (迈上) from one old stair to a new one actually are mapped onto to enter an overall better phase in building a moderately prosperous society. In the last example, the risks and challenges in construction are mapped onto the uncertainties and lurking issues in building a moderately prosperous society. In a construction, there are systematic risks (系统性风险), which are mapped onto the unavoidable problems in target domain. Once mistakes happen, the construction will be delayed and could even stall. So will the process of building a well-off society in the same situation.

1. International cooperation is a construction.
2. “……引导峰会形成一系列具有开创性、引领性、机制性的成果，实现了……为国际合作筑牢根基的总体目标 (Xi, p.449) 。”
3. “……以钉钉子精神抓下去，一步一步把“一带一路”建设推向前进…… (Xi, p. 503) 。”
4. “我们要建立多层次人文合作机制，搭建更多合作平台，开辟更多合作渠道 (Xi, p.514) 。”

The examples listed above show that cooperation between countries is seen as a construction. In example a, a solid foundation (“筑牢根基”) is mapped onto the positive achievements made in the Summit of G 20 in the target domain, which suggests that the success of the summit will make the international cooperation closer. In example b, to drive a nail (“钉钉子”) is considered small but important work in a construction. When it is mapped onto the co-operational work, it means the patience and carefulness acquired in that work, which demonstrates that international cooperation needs to be done in a methodical way. In the last example, platform (“平台”)and channel (“渠道”) are originally used in construction, which can be seen from the verbs they collocate with, namely to “build” (“搭建” 和“开辟”). Platform and channel are mapped onto the ways in cooperation, both facilitating the cooperation between countries. This shows China’s determination to pursue closer cooperation with other countries and improve both sides’ economy.

3.1.4 Disease Metaphor

If one contracts some disease, s/he is in an unhealthy state. He might feel uncomfortable and sick, unable to work or live his life as expected. As a result, a person in illness must receive treatment like medicine taking and operation undergoing. If not treated in early stages, a person might even catch his death eventually, which means everything ends. In Xi’s speeches, disease metaphors are often used in discussing the development of the CPC and the country and they usually help to point out the weaknesses and problems to be addressed.

1. Problems/conflicts are diseases.
2. “准则针对党内存在的突出矛盾和问题，从12个方面作出规定，既指出了

病症，也开出了药方，既有治标举措，也有治本方略 (Xi, p. 180) 。”

1. “全党要深刻认识到，党内监督是永葆党的肌体健康的生命之源，要不断增强向体内病灶开刀的自觉性……(Xi, p. 185-186) 。”
2. “都不敢批评，都部员自我批评，问题就会越积越多，矛盾就会越拖越深，最后病入膏肓就成了不治之症 (Xi, p. 403)。”

In the first example, diseases (“病症”) are mapped onto problems within the Party while prescriptions（“药方”）are mapped onto solutions and work to deal with the problems. The relation between disease and prescription clarifies the importance of the treatment, suggesting that the Party is working systematically to tackles those problems. In the second example, to operate for diseases（“向体内病灶开刀”）in source domain is mapped onto to carry out internal scrutiny in target domain. The aim is to keep healthy and vigorous, metaphorically meaning to keep a good conduct within the Party. In example c, that a disease has aggravated （“病入膏肓”）refers to the problems and conflicts that need immediate solving. And incurable disease（“不治之症”）are mapped onto the insoluble problems and conflicts. By referring to disease metaphors, it is highlighted that the Party and its members should always scrutinize themselves and that they should address the problems and conflicts in no delay.

3.1.5 Animal Metaphor

Animal metaphors are also used in daily situations. Often is the case that we compare someone to a particular animal to suggest that s/he possesses a similar personality as how we think typical of that animal. For example, in Chinese we say someone is cowardly as a mouse, because this is how we perceive a mouse ----- an animal full of timidity. In Xi’s speeches, there are some frequently-used animal metaphors: 1) work is an ox 2) senior officials guilty of corruption are tigers while junior ones are flies.

1. Work is an ox.
2. “……老牛爬坡的拼劲，坚持不懈，攻坚克难，善作善成 (Xi, p. 166) 。”
3. “在推进这“四个全面”过程中，我们既要注重总体谋划，又要注重牵“牛鼻子” (Xi, p. 23)。”
4. “抓住了创新，就抓住了牵动经济社会发展全局的“牛鼻子”(Xi, p. 201)。”

In Chinese culture, an ox is always considered diligent and hard-working. It is an animal that can endure hardships and finish hard work. In example a, by mapping the spirit of an ox into the work onto the spirit needed in China’s work, it is highlighted that our party and our country must work carefully and consistently despite the problems ahead. In reality, farmers will put a halter on an ox in order to lead it the right way and better control it. Therefore in example b, the nose of an ox (“牛鼻子”) is mapped onto the critical and major problems. That is to say, in developing our economy, the country should first focus on what’s important and decisive in implementing Four-pronged Strategy. In example c, the nose of an ox is mapped onto the crux in economy, suggesting the importance of innovation in improving economy.

1. Senior officials guilty of corruption are tigers while junior ones are flies.
2. “对于党内的不正之风和腐败现象，必须坚决处理，坚持“老虎”、“苍蝇”一起打……(Xi, p. 27) 。”
3. “中共十八大以来，我们党加大反腐败斗争力度，坚持“老虎”、“苍蝇”一起打，坚持无禁区、全覆盖、零容忍……(Xi, p.265)。”
4. “相对于“远在天边”的“老虎”，群众对“近在眼前”嗡嗡乱飞的“蝇贪”感受更为真切(Xi, p. 167)。”

Both tigers and flies are animals that can do harm to people. Tigers are fierce and hostile toward human with the capacity of hurting people easily; while small but bothersome, flies are of large amounts and can even carry diseases. These two animal metaphors are specified to the issue of corruption within the Party. By mapping them onto officials guilty of corruption, it is clarified that how the corruption will hurt the well-being of the public, which shows the Party’s determination to fight against the corruption and to improve conduct within the Party and eventually bring well-being to ordinary people.

3.1.6 Human Metaphor

The concept of Human consists mainly of two parts: one is the human body, including flesh, blood, bones, organs etc.; the other is the abstract concepts concerning human like fate, achievement, feeling and so on. Out of the familiarity with human kind, we often use human metaphor to help understand other abstract concepts. In Xi’s speeches, typical human metaphors are: 1) a country or a region is a person 2) the CPC is a person.

1. A country or a region is a person.
2. “中国和所有第三世界国家的命运是共同的(Xi, p.10)。”
3. “……两岸双方应该胸怀民族整体利益、跟紧时代前进步伐，携手巩固两岸关系和平发展大格局…… (Xi, p.429)。”
4. “……邻居出了问题，不能光想着扎好自家篱笆，而应该去帮一把 (Xi, p.542) 。”

In the first example, “fate” is the metaphorical expression. “Fate” is a word originally concerning human, but here it is mapped onto the future of countries. That the fate is shared between China and the third world countries helps to show that China is standing by the latter’s side. In example b, “胸怀”“跟紧”and“携手”are used metaphorically, which are the description of a person’s behavior. Either the mainland China or Taiwan is considered as a person. To join hands in source domain（“携手”）is mapped onto to cooperate closely with each other in the target domain, suggesting the friendly and close relation between them. In the last example, the neighbors of China as a person are mapped onto neighboring countries of China as a country. To strengthen one’s own fences (“扎好自家篱笆”) means to build China into a superpower in the world. By the use of human metaphor, it is vividly shown that China will always extend a helping hand to the neighboring countries in need.

1. The CPC is a person.
2. “……确保党始终同人民同呼吸、共命运、心连心 (Xi, p.44) 。”
3. “中国共产党……都要尊重人民主题地位，尊重人民首创精神，拜人民为师，把政治智慧的增长、治国理政本领的增强……(Xi, p.296)。”
4. “……以人民群众期盼为念，真诚倾听群众呼声，真实反映群众愿望，真情关心群众疾苦 (Xi, p.296) 。”

In the first example, breath, fate and heart (“呼吸”, “命运” “心”) are commonly used when we refer to a person. To describe the CPC with words originally used to depict a person is to show that the CPC as a person knows what people need most and care most, which will be the center of the CPC’s work. In example b, to acknowledge people as the teacher (“拜人民为师”) are mapped on to the notion that the Party should always consider the reality of people and their opinions. In example c, to listen to and to be concerned with （“倾听” and “关心”）are used on the assumption that the CPC is a person. They are metaphorically used to show that the CPC must put people’s interests first and work hard to improve their well-being. Both b and c clarify that the CPC is standing with the people.

3.1.7 Machine Metaphor

Since industrial revolution, all kinds of machines have been invented to improve people’s living condition. Those machines consist of precision parts, working under the cooperation of all parts. Even if one small component is broken, the machine cannot run properly as a whole. Besides, most people are familiar with how a machine works. In this sense, the use of machine metaphor will help audience the underlying meaning to a large extent. In Xi’s speeches, two main machine metaphors are used: 1) government is a machine 2) economic development is a machine.

1. Government is a machine.
2. “还要依法打击村霸黑恶势力，严防他们干扰基层政权运行(Xi, p. 92)。”
3. “……确保改革在法治轨道上推进，保证各级按照新体制正常有序运转 (Xi, p. 410) 。”

A government consists of different departments. If a government as a whole wants to work systematically, different departments need to collaborate with each other. So do governments of all levels. This is similar to how a machine works. In the first example, the basic components of a machine are mapped onto the local governments (“基层政权”) under the central government. In the second example, different parts of a machine are mapped onto governments of all levels. “运行” and “运转” are originally used to describe a machine, but here are used metaphorically to show the government’s working system, clarifying that only when every part of the government runs well can the government as a whole really lead this country to a higher level.

1. Economic development is a machine.
2. “随着要素质量不断提高，经济增长将更多依靠人力资本质量和技术进步，必须让创新成为驱动发展新引擎。(Xi, p. 231) 。”
3. “世界经济正处在动能转换的换挡期，传统增长引擎对经济的拉动作用减弱…… (Xi, p. 479)。”
4. “经济发展面临动力转化节点……经济增长需要更多驱动力创新 (Xi, p. 247)。”

In a machine, the most important is the engine （“引擎”）. By converting energies of other sort into the kinetic energy, the engine is able to provide forces for a machine to run normally. Without the engine, a machine is useless. In example a, engine in a machine is mapped onto the impetus in the economic development. The use of the word “engine” is to point out that innovation is the key factor in developing economy. And in the examples of b and c, the period or the point of changing gear (“换挡期” and “节点”) is mapped onto the crucial period or point in economic development. By using this, it is stress that a new engine is vital to a country’s development. By the examples we can see that innovation is the new engine for China.

3.1.8 Family Metaphor

China has all along been a country that values family and clan. As many Chinese perceive, China is like a big family comprised of myriad families. In this sense, all people are children of our motherland. This conception is also shown in Xi’s speeches mostly in the family metaphor that a country is a family.

• 1. A country is a family

1. “中国共产党的领导，就是支持和保证人民实现当家作主。(Xi, p. 18) 。”
2. “广大澳门同胞当家作主、已发享有广泛自由和民主权力……(Xi, p. 423) 。”
3. “面对侵略者，中华儿女不屈不挠、浴血奋战……(Xi, p. 445)。”

The examples above are based on the cognition that a country is a family while all people are children. In the first example, the relationship between a family and its members is mapped onto that between a country and its people. In a family, instead of outsiders, only family members can decide things within that family. So is the case that only Chinese people can decide their own affairs. In example b, compatriots in Macao are seen as members in the same family. Both example a and b clearly show people’s position as masters in China. In the last example, children are mapped onto Chinese people. By this, it is vividly shown that the bond between the country and its people is strong.

3.1.9 Plant Metaphor

Plants can be seen everywhere in our daily lives, as a result of which we are quite familiar with how they grow and what characteristics they have. To use plant as the source domain can effectively help people to understand more abstract and unfamiliar things to a large extent. In Xi’s speeches, often used are two main plant metaphors: 1) a system is a plant 2) relationship is a plant.

1. A system is a plant.
2. “中国特色社会主义政治制度过去和现在一直生长在中国的社会土壤之中，未来要继续茁壮成长，也必须深深扎根于中国的社会土壤。(Xi, p. 286) 。”
3. “只有扎根本国土壤、汲取充沛养分的制度，才最可靠、也最管用 (Xi, p. 286) 。”
4. ““一国”是根，根深才能叶茂；“一国”是本，本固才能枝荣 (Xi, p. 435) 。”

The roots of most plants are buried underground, absorbing nutrients from the soil in order to grow lush. In example a, plant is mapped onto the political system of Chinese socialism. To root in Chinese soil (“扎根于中国的社会土壤”) is mapped onto to develop the political system based on China’s own situation. Examples a and b show clearly and vividly that China’s political system must be perfected only by taking China’s particular actual conditions instead of blindly copying other countries’ political systems. In the last example, “One Country, Two Systems” is compared to a plant or specifically a tree. The relationship between a tree and its roots is mapped onto that between “One Country” and “Two Systems”, which alludes to that Hong Kong’s prosperity can be achieved only when “One Country, Two Systems” is practiced unremittingly.

1. A relationship is a plant.
2. “正是有一代接一代的友好人士辛勤耕耘，中阿友好的大树才能枝繁叶茂、四季常青 (Xi, p. 465) 。”
3. “只有深根厚植，友谊和合作之树才能枝繁叶茂 (Xi, p.493) 。”

In both examples, relationships between countries are described as trees. Planted carefully and meticulously, trees will be luxuriant. To become luxuriant and evergreen (“枝繁叶茂、四季常青”) is mapped onto to have a close and kind relationship in the long term. They metaphorically show that China has the wish to build strong and close bond with other countries and will make endless efforts to reach that goal.

3.1.10 Weather Metaphor

To most of people, weather has impact on their feelings. For example, a person might feel positive in a sunny day while turn depressed in a rainy day. Correspondingly, elements in the domain of weather like sun, rain and cloud etc. can reflect speakers’ attitudes towards the issue in question. In Xi’s speeches, weather metaphors are often used to show the positive or negative aspects in a certain topic.

1. “……要把当今世界的风云变幻看准、看清、看透，从林林总总的表象中发现本质，尤其是要认清长远趋势 (Xi, p. 442) 。”
2. “曾几何时，台海阴云密布，两岸军事对峙，同胞隔海相望，亲人音讯断绝……(Xi, p. 428) 。”
3. “……让人民监督权力，让权力在阳光下运行 (Xi, p. 298) 。”
4. “和平、发展、进步的阳光足以穿透战争、贫穷、落后的阴霾 (Xi, p. 522) 。”

Owing to the complexity and uncertainty, situations around the world keep rapid changing. Similarly, weather is sometimes unpredictable and changes unexpectedly. In the first example, the unpredictable weather therefore is mapped onto the changing situations. While in examples b, c and d, elements of weather are used. In b, dark clouds (“阴云”) in a bad weather, are mapped onto the impediment to the union of Taiwan and the mainland China, suggesting a negative attitude. Besides, sunshine （“阳光”）, bringing life and warmth to the earth according to our perception about nature, is mapped onto a good atmosphere or process. In example c, to work under sun is mapped onto to use power under people’s supervision, suggesting that the abuse of power should be eliminated. In example d, haze (“阴霾”), always harmful to health and bring bad feelings, is mapped onto a bad situation or circumstance. By the use of sunshine and haze, a hope is vividly pictured that the future is bright and brilliant, showing a positive attitude toward the world.

3.2 Translation Methods of Conceptual Metaphors in President Xi’s Speeches

According to Conceptual Metaphor Theory, a metaphor contains source domain, target domain and the mapping. Among the three, it is mapping that matters most, for it reflects how we perceive the abstract concepts and how we think of other unfamiliar things. Mappings in the source text might have corresponding or similar ones in the target text, or none at all. What decide the correspondences are the similarities and the differences of metaphorical cognition between Chinese and English.

From the cognitive point of view, translators must have a grasp of the mappings of conceptual metaphors in the ST, and then try to construct the mappings in the TT as much as possible. This means that preservation of conceptual metaphors (which is actually the preservation of the mappings) will always come as the first choice if the mappings in the ST are understandable for target readers. But if the mappings of conceptual metaphors in the ST cannot be easily understood by the audience, translators will have to refer other methods. Based on this guidance, three translation methods are proposed bellow: 1) conceptual metaphor preservation for the equivalent mappings 2) conceptual metaphor substitution for the non-equivalent mappings 3) conceptual metaphor deletion for the non-equivalent mappings.

3.2.1 Conceptual Metaphor Preservation for the Equivalent Mappings

Conceptual metaphors preservation is to preserve the conceptual metaphors in the source text when translating them in the target text. To put it simply, this means that the conceptual metaphors are translated literally. Therefore, the mappings in those metaphors are also preserved. This works because the mappings can be easily understood in both Chinese (the source language) and English (the target language). Despite some differences in cognition, Chinese and English audience have a great amount of similar concepts, in other words, cultural similarity. If the mappings preserved can be perceived in the same way for Chinese and English readers, the metaphors can be directly translated and thus the mappings can be preserved. In Xi’s speeches, the method is the primary one among the three generalized in the thesis.

1. “……打赢脱贫攻坚战 (Xi, p. 83) 。”

“……to win this battle against poverty.”

1. “和平、发展、进步的阳光足以穿透战争、贫穷、落后的阴霾 (Xi, p. 522) 。”

“The light of peace, development, and progress will be powerful enough to dispel the clouds of war, poverty and backwardness.”

1. “……全党同志一定要不忘初心、继续前进 (Xi, p. 33) 。”

“……all party members should never forget why we started out and continue marching forward. ”

1. “…….坚持“老虎”、“苍蝇”一起打……(Xi, p. 27) 。”

“……and deal with both “tigers” and “flies”.”

In example A, war/battle is the source domain, while poverty alleviation is the target domain. The characteristic of former is mapped onto that of the latter. The concept of war, which can be known through news report, is familiar to both Chinese and English audience. A war needs meticulous efforts, so do the poverty alleviation. The mapping between war and poverty alleviation can be easily understood by readers from different backgrounds. Therefore, in translation, the concept of war is preserved in the target language, meanwhile maintaining the determination implied in the original text.

In example B, elements of weather are mapped onto situations. Sunshine and cloud are both familiar things. Sunshine is mapped onto positive feelings while cloud is mapped onto negative ones. The mappings can be understood for the Chinese and English. So the conceptual metaphors are preserved in the translation. The vividness of light’s dispelling clouds and reaching the ground is also kept in this way.

In example C, the conceptual metaphor is that the development of the Party is a journey. In the translation, “继续前行” is translated directly into “march forward”. This is because “marching forward” is mapped onto making efforts in target domain. This mapping is understandable to the Chinese and English. However, in the translation, it is noticed that “不忘初心” is translated into “never forget why we start out” instead of “stay true to our original aspiration”. In the target domain, “不忘初心” means the start of the Party; While in the source domain, it alludes to the start of a journey. By translating it into a journey metaphor, the translation is consistent on the conceptual metaphor that the development of the Party is a journey.

In example D, “tiger” and “flies” are both animals we are familiar with. However, from the perspective of culture, they might be perceived differently by the Chinese and English. Besides, “tiger” and “flies” are metaphors tailored with Chinese characteristic when referring to corruption, which makes them inaccessible to people ignorant of Chinese. Surprisingly, they are still translated literally. But in the endnote, their implied meanings are stated clearly. When it comes to the translation of metaphors with clear Chinese characteristics, this technique can be used out of cultural confidence.

3.2.2 Conceptual Metaphor Substitution for the Non-equivalent Mappings

Conceptual metaphors substitution means to translate one kind of conceptual metaphors in the source language into another kind in the target language. For differences in cognition between Chinese and English, people from different backgrounds might not share the same perception or attitude toward the same thing. The conceptual metaphors used in the original text might be hard for audience in other languages or cultures to understand. So in order to make the translation more acceptable for them in terms of cognitive process or way of thinking, this method can be adopted.

1. “…….要不断增强向体内病灶开刀的自觉性……(Xi, p.186)。”

We should constantly enhance our will to tackle deep-rooted problems.

1. “对这个问题，我们要高度重视，认真研究，把情况搞清楚，把症结分析透……(Xi, p. 224)。”

“This is a pressing problem, and we must pay attention to it. We need to find out the root causes.”

1. “生态文明建设与每个人息息相关(Xi, p. 396)。”

“Ecological progress is a matter for everyone.”

In example A, “病灶” is mapped onto the problems within the Party, which reflects the conceptual metaphor that problems within the Party are diseases. However, in the translation, plant metaphor (“deep-rooted” that is originally used to describe plants), takes the place of the disease metaphor. This word “deep-rooted” shows the conceptual metaphor that the development of the Party is a plant. By stressing the important role of roots to a plant, the significance of addressing those problems is highlighted. To converse disease metaphor into plant metaphor helps readers to understand the development of the Party with the knowledge of plants, which is more familiar to the foreign readers.

In example B, “症结” in the source domain of disease is mapped onto the key problems within the Party. Similar to example A, B also suggests the plant metaphor that the development of the Party is a plant, with the translation changing the disease metaphor into plant metaphor by using the word “root”. We usually perceive that roots are deep in the soil. This characteristic is mapped onto that of key problems, the mapping of which is understandable for foreign readers. The use of “root” places the focus on the importance and urgency of finding out causes that must be addressed in order to develop the Party well. In this way, by comparing the Party to a tree, the foreign readers can better understand how our Party develops.

In example C, in the source text, the construction is mapped onto the realization of eco-civilization, reflecting the construction metaphor that the eco-civilization is a construction. However, in the target language, “建设” is translated into “progress”, substituting the original construction metaphor with the journey metaphor that eco-civilization is a journey. Construction metaphor focuses on the efforts put into the work; while journey metaphor positively emphasizes the progress made and the destination of realizing eco-civilization. This change conveys a message to audience that China is making progress in achieving eco-civilization.

3.2.3 Conceptual Metaphor Deletion for the Non-Equivalent Mappings

Conceptual metaphor deletion is to cancel the conceptual metaphors in the translation and explicitly express what those metaphors mean. The aim is to make sure that the target audience can perfectly understand what the source text implies. In this case, the preservation of the mappings of some conceptual metaphors will only confuse the readers. Or there might not be a comparatively similar or corresponding mapping in the target language. The method can be used under several cases: first, metaphors used are not in line with foreign readers’ cognition; second, metaphors are hard to understand because of their uncommonality. To cancel conceptual metaphors is to be audience-friendly, facilitating their grasp of the messages conveyed in the source text.

1. “……老牛爬坡的拼劲，坚持不懈，攻坚克难，善作善成 (Xi, p. 166) 。”

“……we must persevere and solve them one by one……”

1. “抓住了创新，就抓住了牵动经济社会发展全局的“牛鼻子”(Xi, p. 201)。”

“Innovation is the key to driving overall social and economic development.”

1. “……让人民监督权力，让权力在阳光下运行 (Xi, p. 298) 。”

“……power is exercised in ways that are open to scrutiny.”

1. “共产党人如果没有信仰、没有理想，或信仰、理想不坚定，精神上就会“缺钙”，就会得“软骨病”……(Xi, p.326)。”

“The lack or absence of ideals and convictions will result in moral weakness...”

In example A, the conceptual metaphor that work is an ox is not a frequently-used one for western readers. The spirit of a working ox, which is perseverance, is comprehensible to Chinese audience, but for people unfamiliar with Chinese culture, this conceptual metaphor only hinders their understanding of the whole text. Therefore, it is viable to cancel that inaccessible metaphor and instead directly state the gist of that metaphor. “We must persevere” tells the exact content of an ox’s spirit and remove every barrier in understanding.

In example B, “牛鼻子” is mapped onto the key of economic development. Similarly, this metaphor is of comparative Chinese characteristic, people from other backgrounds might find this mapping hard to understand. However, simply pointing out what “牛鼻子” symbolizes will make the translation more readable and comprehensible. “The key” is a regular phrase that everyone speaking English can understand. Therefore, the translation succeeds in conveying the message in the source text.

In example C, “在阳光下”, for either Chinese or English, brings an aura of positivity. However, as the common characteristic of Chinese, this is a general phrase that gives an overall feeling but fails to suggest what’s behind. So even for Chinese readers, “在阳光下” can only be understood superficially. But when it comes to its concrete meaning, it is hard to tell what is exactly implied. Here, sunshine is mapped onto the people’s supervision. This mapping is not accessible to foreign readers. Therefore, in order to reach explicitness, it’s for the best to state the specific content of the metaphor used. “open to scrutiny” is the exact thing behind “在阳光下”. To delete the conceptual metaphor makes the message clear.

In example D, “缺钙” and “软骨病” are diseases that can be seen in daily life. The diseases are mapped onto the weaknesses in spirit. However, owing to the irregularity of comparing disease to spirit, this mapping is somewhat confusing for western readers. Besides, these two diseases are chosen by the context, which means this metaphor lacks universality. So to express explicitly the underlying meaning is a good way for translating this conceptual metaphor. It will take no effort to understand “moral weakness”, which is in line with westerner’s cognition.

Chapter IV Conclusion

4.1 Major Findings

• 1. What are the main types of conceptual metaphors applied in the speeches?

According to the source domains, conceptual metaphors identified in Xi’s speeches are divided into a total of ten categories. In each category there are some main concepts as listed below.

• 1. Whether their corresponding English versions contain the same type of conceptual metaphors as them or different from them, or even no conceptual metaphors at all?

Some conceptual metaphors are preserved in the corresponding English translation while some are substituted with metaphors of other categories. And some are even deleted in the translation. These situations depend on whether the mappings between source domain and target domain in the ST are in line with the cognition of the target readers. The similarities in cognitive process of people from different backgrounds account for the answer YES, in which case the mappings (or the conceptual metaphors) can be preserved. The differences lead to the answer NO, in which case the mappings in the ST must be substituted with those easy to comprehend in the TT. If there are no suitable alternatives, those mappings should be deleted in order to express the underlying meaning clearly and explicitly.

• 1. What are the main translation methods of conceptual metaphors in the speeches?

By analyzing typical example selected, three main translation methods applied in the speeches are generalized. They are 1) conceptual metaphor preservation for the equivalent mappings 2) conceptual metaphor substitution for the non-equivalent mappings 3) conceptual metaphor deletion for the non-equivalent mappings. Conceptual metaphors preservation is to preserve the conceptual metaphors in the source text when translating them in the target text. Conceptual metaphors substitution means to translate one kind of conceptual metaphors in the source language into another kind in the target language. Conceptual metaphor deletion is to cancel the conceptual metaphors in the translation and explicitly express what those metaphors mean. However, no matter which technique is adopted, the ultimate goal of the translation is to help the audience clearly understand messages conveyed in the source text.

4.2 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Study

This research also has some limitations. First, the Xi’s speeches are of such a large amount that by mere personal identification of metaphors there must be some omissions. There might be other kinds of conceptual metaphors to be identified. Second, owing to limit of the author’s energy and time, the most-used conceptual metaphors and their translation techniques are not concluded. Besides, Xi’s speeches are only selected from The Governance of China published in 2017, which means that the corpus is not so much up-to-date.

Therefore, for further studies there are some suggestions. First, in study on metaphors, researchers should consider using computer to identify metaphors, so as to improve the comprehensiveness of research. Second, latest political speeches can be analyzed, in order to keep track of the change of conceptual metaphors. Last, frequently-used conceptual metaphors and their translation methods can be generalized.

References:

Al-Hasnawi, A. R. 2007. A Cognitive Approach to Translating Metaphors[A]. Australia: Translation Watch Quarterly.

Dagut, M. 1976. Can metaphor be translated?[J]. International Journal of Translation 1: 21-33.

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