民国时期的翻译技术和文化传播

论文总字数：51026字

摘 要

民国时期，社会动荡，中外交流频繁，社会思潮涌动，西方的新思想、文化、科技不断涌入。翻译活动是语言转换和文化交流的重要载体，在这一时期起到了重要作用，而翻译活动的实现离不开技术的支持。研究那段历史的翻译活动和翻译技术对于了解中国近代早期的社会状况和文化传播方式有很大意义。

现今对于那段时期的翻译研究很少，更多的研究在晚清的翻译活动，因此本文从翻译技术的角度进行研究。首先，从西方的翻译技术起源入手；随后，研究中国的翻译技术的传入和相关应用，以及接受度和推广度；接下来从技术视角转向文化传播视角，对翻译技术的发展所带来的文化输入和输出进行分析，基于知识社会学的理论探讨现代知识体系在中国的生产和传播路径，探究技术作为文化交流的重要载体对文化发展的关键性作用。

通过对民国时期翻译技术的引进、推广及其对文化传播和社会变革的影响的初步研究，本文发现，翻译技术的引入对于社会文化传播有重要影响。翻译技术的应用从一个领域到其他领域的扩展，以及翻译技术在民国时期的接受和推广，体现了知识、文化、技术的流通和发展。并且，翻译活动和翻译技术对于民国社会的各个方面，比如教育、外交，以及社会关系、文化传播模式都有着很大影响。

关键词：民国时期, 翻译，技术，文化传播，社会影响

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments i

Abstract ii

摘要 iii

Table of Contents iv

Introduction 1

Background 1

Literature Review 1

Theoretical Framework 3

Thesis Structure 4

Chapter One Origin and Application of Translation and Interpreting Technology in the West 5

1.1 Formation of Global Network and Emergence of Translation and Interpreting Technology 5

1.2 Application of Translation and Interpreting Technology in the West 5

1.2.1 Before World War Ⅱ 5

1.2.2 After World WarⅡ 6

Chapter Two Introduction and Application of Translation and Interpreting Technology during the Republican Period 8

2.1 Movie 8

2.1.1 Description 8

2.1.2 Subtitles 8

2.1.3 Earphone 9

2.1.4 Dubbing 10

2.2 Other Applications 10

2.2.1 International Conference 10

2.2.2 Trial 11

Chapter Three Social Acceptance and Promotion of Translation and Interpreting Technology 12

3.1 Reaction of Audience 12

3.1.1 Positive Reaction 12

3.1.2 Negative Reaction 13

3.2 Promotion and Development 14

3.2.1 Preliminary Promotion 14

3.2.2 Further Development 14

Chapter Four Translation and Interpreting Technology and the Spread of Modern Culture 16

4.1 Knowledge Production and Application under the Influence of Translation and Interpreting Technology 16

4.1.1 Translation and Interpreting Technology and War 16

4.1.2 Translation and Interpreting Technology and Education 17

4.1.3 Translation and Interpreting Technology and Diplomacy 17

4.2 The Impact of Translation Technology on Social Culture during the Republican Period 18

4.2.1 Social Impact 18

4.2.2 Government's Regulatory Restrictions 20

Conclusion 21

Works Cited 22

Introduction

Background

The Republican Period is the most turbulent and revolutionary period in Chinese history. During this period, the domestic and international circumstances went through a deep change, and new social trends of thought were surging. Various revolutionary movements, especially the New Culture Movement, comprehensively and systematically introduced and propagated the Western modern knowledge system to China. Translation and interpreting constitutes a process of language conversion, and it is also a process of mutual communication between different cultures. In this process, as performers of translation activities, translators are of vital importance. Also, translation technology, as a supplementary means to realizing and implementing translation activities, makes a difference in the development of cultural communication ( Luo and Ren 17). On one hand, researches on translation and interpreting technology is hard to find in China and abroad; on the other hand, there are fewer studies on translation and interpreting technology as well as its relationship with social culture at this particular historical stage since more attention is paid to the relationship between translation and international communication in the late Qing Dynasty. However, the Republican Period is also an important period of the introduction of Western knowledge and social changes. The analysis of the translation and interpreting technology during this historical period is of great significance to reveal the social conditions and cultural dynamics of the Republican Period, and may also help us understand the development of Chinese social history from a new perspective.

Literature Review

In China and abroad, the study of translation and interpreting history in the Republican Period is relatively inadequate. The few existing researches are conducted mainly from the following perspectives: the translated content, the translators, and the translation institutions. Firstly, the translated content includes Western Marxist-Leninist materials and the works of famous thinkers and politicians. For example, Feng Zhijie discussed the translation of “Democracy and Science” in the New Culture Movement. In his History of Modern Chinese Translation, he analyzed the early spread of Marxism in China and the early translation of scientific and philosophical knowledge compatible with modern spirit. Also, Robert Entenmann, in his “Protestant Bible Translation and Mandarin as the National Language of China”, collated and analyzed the translation and spread of the Bible in China in the early 20th century. Secondly, researches on the translators are mainly about the life stories of famous translators. For example, Li Nanqiu gathered the information of the interpreters during the revolution period of the Chinese Communist Party. In the tenth chapter of the History of Chinese Interpreting, he highlighted the role of interpreters in the process of the revolution of the Chinese Communist Party and introduced their contribution to various interpreting activities. In a similar vein, Fredman Zach analyzed a group of Chinese interpreters from 1941 to 1945 in his “Lofty Expectations and Bitter Reality: Chinese Interpreters for the US Army during the Second World War, 1941−1945.” They were in China-Burma-India (CBI) war zone, serving as interpreters for the US army. His research enriches our understanding of wartime interpreting and the China-US alliance in World War II. The third aspect is translation institutions, containing translation agencies and publishing companies, etc. For example, Liang Zhifang introduced a special translation agency “Fushe” established in the Shanghai Concession during the Anti-Japanese War in his “Reconstruction of Translation Culture: A Special Translation Agency in the ‘Island’ Period of Shanghai,” analyzing the establishment, organizational structure and historical significance of this agency.

On the other hand, there is almost no research conducted from the technological perspective; on the other hand, investigation of Western translation and interpreting technology as well as its social acceptance and promotion in the Republican Period is scarcer. Therefore, this paper intends to explore the translation and interpreting technology in China and abroad during the Republican Period and the role it played in knowledge dissemination and cultural exchange, trying to revealing the social and cultural context during that period.

Theoretical Framework

Sociology of knowledge is a branch of sociology that studies the social processes involved in the production of knowledge (Collins Dictionary of Sociology 2000). It is concerned with the understanding and explanation of knowledge in particular cases, and with the relations between the general forms of knowledge and social structure, including both the effects of knowledge and any power which condition either the form or the content of knowledge. Research topics within the sociology of knowledge include and are not limited to: the process through which people come to know the world; the connections between knowledge and social movements; the effects of media or communication modes on knowledge production and dissemination; the connection between knowledge and political powers.

Knowledge or thought is the product of social life. To study its emergence and development, we need to analyze the connection between it and social groups, and dig out the reason why certain ideas come into being. Social institutions, like education, family, religion, media, and scientific and medical establishments, play a fundamental role in knowledge production. With the increasingly development of contemporary sociology of knowledge, it mainly studies the production, storage, dissemination and application of knowledge. Translation and interpreting technology as an assistance of language conversion and multinational communication, counts for much in the dissemination of western knowledge and culture in the Republican Period. Hence, the connection between the knowledge and social life is useful to analyze the the influence of translation and interpreting technology on knowledge production in different aspects of society.

Knowledge and power are considered intimately related. Power exists in many aspects of knowledge, such as knowledge formation, the hierarchy of knowledge, and especially the process of creating knowledge about others and their communities. In this context, all knowledge is political, and the processes of knowledge formation have been changed in a variety of ways. Nowadays, large-scaled knowledge production and dissemination have resulted in a knowledge-intensive society. Sociology is paying more and more attention to the status and role of knowledge in social development and change, involving a series of issues, such as the formulation and implementation of knowledge or ideas in policy-making. In the Republic Period, the role of power in the process of knowledge production cannot be ignored. The government restrictions are conducive to regulating the way of cultural communication and knowledge dissemination. The relationship between knowledge and power can be used to analyze the official control of translation and interpreting technology and how government apply the technology in knowledge formation and promotion.

Thesis Structure

This paper focuses on the introduction and promotion of translation and interpreting technology during the Republican Period and its impact on cultural communication and social changes. It mainly explores the origin, development and evolution of translation and interpreting technology, especially the technology of “earphone (yiyifeng).” Chapter One starts with a brief introduction of Western translation and interpreting technology, investigating its application in court trials and international conferences; Chapter Two focuses on the introduction of technologies for translation and interpreting and examining their application in film screening and large conferences in China; Chapter Three analyzes the social acceptance and promotion of translation and interpreting technology during this period; on this basis, Chapter Four, changing from the perspective of technology to cultural communication, deals with the cultural input and output brought by the development of translation and interpreting technology, and explores the production and transmission of modern knowledge system in China based on the sociology of knowledge. By revealing the key role of technology in international exchanges and knowledge production, combining with historical facts, this paper attempts to reappear the social and cultural condition of the Republican Period.

Chapter One Origin and Application of Translation and Interpreting Technology in the West

• 1. Formation of Global Network and Emergence of Translation and Interpreting Technology

Translation and interpreting has always been an indispensable activity in human history. In Western translation history, from the Roman period to the modern era of globalization, the exchanges of literature, art, trade and science between countries all require the support of translation and interpreting activities. Since ancient times, revolutions, cultural movements and wars, especially the two world wars, have been stimulative for communication. Various international conferences and foreign affairs need the assistance of translators and interpreters. As the variety of languages in international communication increases, traditional translation and interpreting shows certain limitations and demands some new technical support.

1.2 Application of Translation and Interpreting Technology in the West

1.2.1 Before World War Ⅱ

Before the First World War, language of the more powerful country was used in the trade of two countries, while the international conferences and other diplomatic activities mostly used French. After World War Ⅰ, with the status of English rising, there existed a situation that French and English were both used. This situation began in the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, the first time to interpreting in English and French (Tan 205). Since it was mainly necessary to interpret the speeches into English and French, there was little difficulty and the quality of interpretation is relatively high.

As international political and economic conferences had gradually increased, they had suffered from the problem of language barriers among representatives from different countries. The common method then was to translate the speech draft and read them out after the delegates finished their talking, which was quite time-consuming. As early as 1929, the earphone has already been used to aid interpreters. The earphone is a interpreting device used at the conference or movie theater. The interpreter interprets the conversations of the speaker into various languages and the listener can choose the language he knows from the receiver on the seat and listen through the headphones. For instance, the delegates could make a choice between the origin language of the speaker and other five different language at the twelfth International Labor Conference held in Geneva (The China Press 1929). The conference hall was temporarily equipped with over 500 pairs of earphone, fed electrically through six and a half miles of wire, having 7300 connections. Likewise, in 1930, at the World Power Conference held in Berlin, a interpreting device was used to translate the three languages—German, English and French, which were officially used for the conference (Bao 65). The equipment was manufactured by Siemens Motor Factory, and the interpreter would convey speaker’s meaning and then speak to the microphone. The listener could put on the headphone and switch to the line of the language he wanted to hear, and also change the volume by using the control button. Subsequently, other meetings gradually followed this approach.

1.2.2 After World WarⅡ

After the Second World War, the changes in the international situation and the increase of global exchanges had enlarged the language difficulty of interpreting, requiring new technological improvements and support. In the Nuremberg trial for Nazi war criminals from 1945 to 1946, the simultaneous interpretation of four languages, English, French, Russian, and German, first officially used microphones and headphones. That is the interpreting equipment “earphone”. After the Nuremberg trial, other meetings had gradually followed suit, such as The International Trade Conference held in the UK. The organizers of the conference said that when the conference was held, “earphone” used in the trial of the Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg court would be airlifted to London(“The International Trade Conference” 4). And later at the Tokyo trial, although the same simultaneous interpretation equipment used in the Nuremberg trial, consecutive interpretation was still adopted because the shortage of qualified interpreters at that time bought difficulties to simultaneous interpretation between English and Japanese (Kayoko 526). The United Nations, established in 1945, stipulated that English, French, Russian, Chinese, and Spanish were the five official working languages. In June 1946, the New York News Agency reported that the UN Secretary-General would travel to Nuremberg, Germany in the following month to investigate the interpreting machine used in the Nuremberg trial. This machine used a special way to interpret the official languages of the United Nations on the spot.

In 1947, the World Education Conference used an updated “earphone”. The device was invented by the International Business Machine Corp. This interpretation machine was a wireless radio that could be put on the head and was the same size of a camera that allowed the receiver to move freely. Seven interpreters received signals with headphones and interpreted speeches into his megaphone. If the speaker spoke too fast, the interpreter could press the button to light up the warning light on the speaker’s desk. The listener only needed to use anther control button to choose the language he wanted to listen to. This device had eight radio lines: seven language lines were in English, Spanish, French, Chinese, Russian, German and Italian; the last line allowed listeners to directly hear the speaker’s voice.

At the same time, machine translation initially developed. In 1946, the first computer came out. Andrew D. Brooth and Warren Weaver proposed machine translation by adopting computers in the field of translation and then did a series of following research (Tan 211).

It can be seen that translation technology was initially developed in the West. During its development, these technologies were gradually introduced to China, and applied in various fields of Chinese society, promoting the spread of knowledge and culture.

Chapter Two Introduction and Application of Translation and Interpreting Technology during the Republican Period

2.1 Movie

With the increase of exchanges between China and foreign countries, foreign technology, culture, and ideas have been introduced to China. In the early days when translation and interpreting technology was introduced to China, it was mainly used in the film industry.

2.1.1 Description

Film was born in France in 1895, and was introduced to China in the next year by the French members of the Xu Garden Entertainment Club in Shanghai as “xiyang yingxi (western movies).” As an important audio-visual medium for communication, film had promoted the global dissemination and sharing of knowledge and information since its inception. In Republican China, it also played a significant role in information transmission and intercultural communication. The constant influx of foreign films created a demand for film translation and interpreting due to the problem of language barriers in watching foreign films, and also required some technical support. During the Republican period, film translation and interpreting technology continuously improved and developed. Early films were mainly silent, and at that time they mainly used “film description”, a piece of paper with brief introductions and credits to the film. In addition to this “description”, there was also another method, on-site interpreting. At the time of the film screening, some special people stood aside to explain the plot, interpreting the content briefly and paying little attention to details.

2.1.2 Subtitles

After the 1920s, the film industry was gradually developing. The former film description and on-site interpretation could not meet the increasing demand for watching foreign films. At this time, a new technology was produced - subtitles. In 1922, Shanghai Peacock Film Company pioneered in the use of Chinese subtitles for foreign films, and the first translated film is Lotus Girl from the United States. After that, other film companies followed suit. They hired people to translate subtitles and the main equipment they used was slide projector. In the spring of 1933, a large number of foreign films had Chinese subtitles. However, subtitle translation also had many problems, such as inaccuracy. The Chinese subtitles of this period mainly relied on slide projectors, but this device was not installed in all theaters. As a result, later on, foreign film dealers gradually added Chinese subtitles to the original footage when importing into China. In addition, not only English film companies, but also films studios from other countries wanted to expand the Chinese market so they also began to add Chinese subtitles, such as French films.

2.1.3 Earphone

After 1939, film translation obtained a further breakthrough. The “yiyifeng”, or the earphone, began to serve as an interpretation device. The interpreter interpreted the dialogue in the film into Mandarin right away in a soundproof room, and the listener can receive the sound from the headphones on the seat. It was originally produced by an American manufacturer for the Grand Theater in Shanghai. On 9th November, 1939, the Grand Theater officially used it. Spending a dime for a “yiyifeng” voucher, the audience could use the machine in the theater. Behind the theater chair was installed a small square box, within which were wires connecting to the microphones. After the voucher was given to the staff, a pair of earpieces would be handed to the consumers. Put it on the head, then plug the earpieces into the small square, and the audience could hear Chinese version of dialogue in the movie immediately. The cinema hired a special group of people, called “Miss Yiyifeng” to interpret the film. Miss Yiyifeng required good English skills, fluent Mandarin, and a low-pitched voice(L. Ma 11). Most of them were college students. At the beginning, the interpretation was only about the general idea, and as the demand increased, it gradually put emphasis on the mood and tone of different roles in the story.

2.1.4 Dubbing

In addition to the description and Chinese subtitles, American film dealers had been trying Mandarin dubbing when importing films into China. During the Second World War, in order to strengthen its contact with China, America began to make special films with Chinese dubbing, but most of them were documentaries and science films and were not widely spread. In the late 1940s, China began to make dubbed films. In May 1949, China’s first dubbed film Private Aleksandr Matrosov was produced by the Northeast Film Studio, a film directed by Yuan Naichen, translated by Meng Guangyu, Yan Ming, Liu Chi, Zhang Jiake, and recorded by Gao Da Xiao Erlang. Main voice actors includes Zhang Yukun, Wu Jing and so on (Z. Ma 276). The procedure of producing dubbed films included the following steps: translate the script into Chinese, use the recording equipment to dub the films, and then record the voice in the studio. The emergence of dubbed films effectively and systematically dealt with the problem of language barriers when Chinese audiences watched foreign films. Dubbing improved the viewing experience and was greatly welcomed by domestic audiences.

2.2 Other Applications

2.2.1 International Conference

Most of the initial imported films were English films, mainly requiring English translation and interpretation. After World War II, with changes of world affairs and the increase of cultural exchanges between countries, more languages were used in international communication, especially at conferences. In the United Nations conference of 1945, the delegates were equipped with “yiyifeng”, but the equipment was fixed to the seat, which was its main limitation. In 1947, the “yiyifeng” was further upgraded. With its help, on the occasion of international conference, delegates were able to walk around the conference hall at will. It was used to interpret seven languages--English, Spanish, French, Chinese, Russian, German and Italian. Chinese delegates also used the device during this meeting.

2.2.2 Trial

Apart from the international conference, “yiyifeng” is also applied in the trial. At international courts, judges, lawyers and criminals may speak different languages, so this machine was very suitable for court trials and other similar occasions. For example, at the Tokyo trial, Chinese judges also use the “yiyifeng”.

Chapter Three Social Acceptance and Promotion of Translation and Interpreting Technology

3.1 Reaction of Audience

3.1.1 Positive Reaction

Everyone had mixed feelings about the various translation and interpreting technologies employed in the movie. As for Chinese subtitles, some people thought it was better than the earphone. In their opinion, Chinese subtitles had a sense of quiet beauty and enjoyment, and Western movies with Chinese subtitles also provided the opportunity to practice English. While other people thought that compared with “yiyifeng”, Chinese subtitles would cause distraction, and they were unable to read the subtitles and watch movies at the same time, whereas the earphone can let them understand the content while watching the scenes on the movie screen. The Grand Theater, before officially using this equipment, organized a preview and invited reporters of the Chinese and Western newspapers. The outcome was exceptionally great, and “yiyifeng” gained good comments. In the newspaper New Women, an article about Miss Yiyifeng said that the yiyifeng was not only a bridge between Chinese and foreign languages, but also served as a means of promoting film art and assisting education. Miss Yiyifeng was a very popular profession at that time, and the salary was relatively high (Gu 8). Even some movie stars changed their career to “Miss Yiyifeng”. Yiyifeng did not only interpret each dialogue in details, along with simple character introduction and storytelling, but also keep the tone consistent with the emotions of the characters in the movie, which was very helpful for people who didn’t understand English at all. Subsequently, the emergence of Chinese dubbing brought a sensation, and it was greatly welcomed by the audience and movie lovers. The details of language, including length, tone, pause and punctuation in the translated film were consistent with those of the original one, but the only difference was that the language was changed to Chinese (Wang, 5). So this interpreting technology was more efficient than the former ones.

Many people had also praised the interpreting equipment “earphone” used at international conferences. This equipment was used by the delegates in the early UN meetings to interpret five languages into English using microphones and headsets. But not all delegates had good English skills, so this method gradually has limitations and was replaced with a new approach. When the representative spoke, the voice was received by the microphone and transferred via lines to the ears of the interpreters sitting in the glass room. Every interpreter must understand the seven languages and interpret them fluently without hesitation. Apart from that, each of them must have a bit of talent for public speaking, and can express both the central meaning and tone of the speech. Chinese delegates who had participated in the UN conference was really impressed and felt that this equipment brings great convenience to them.

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